In the modern world, few inventions have had such a profound impact on global security, politics, and human history as the nuclear weapon. Since its first detonation during World War II, nuclear weapons have remained a subject of intense debate, fear, and fascination. They are symbols of the immense power and potential for destruction contained within the atom. Yet, their existence raises important questions about how nations interact, how power is measured, and how the future of humanity can be shaped in an era where nuclear warfare remains a real possibility.

At their core, nuclear weapons are devices designed to release an enormous amount of energy through nuclear reactions, either by splitting atoms (fission) or combining them (fusion). This energy is capable of destroying entire cities in a single flash, instantly vaporizing people, buildings, and infrastructure. But nuclear weapons are not just physical objects; they are symbols of geopolitics, deterrence, and the delicate balance of peace and war in the modern world.

The Science Behind Nuclear Weapons

To understand the immense power of nuclear weapons, one must first understand the science behind them. At the heart of a nuclear weapon is the concept of energy release through nuclear reactions. The two most commonly used reactions in nuclear weapons are nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

Nuclear Fission: Splitting the Atom

Nuclear fission is the process that powers atomic bombs. In this reaction, the nucleus of a heavy atom, typically uranium-235 or plutonium-239, is split into two smaller nuclei, along with several neutrons and a significant amount of energy. This energy is released in the form of an explosive burst. When one atom undergoes fission, it releases neutrons that can trigger fission in nearby atoms, causing a chain reaction. If the material is in a sufficient quantity and properly arranged, this chain reaction becomes uncontrollable, leading to a massive release of energy.

The first atomic bombs, like those dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, used uranium-235 and plutonium-239 for fission. The precise arrangement and mass of these materials are critical to ensure the reaction is rapid and efficient, maximizing the explosion’s energy output.

Nuclear Fusion: Combining Atoms

Nuclear fusion, on the other hand, is the process that powers hydrogen bombs, which are significantly more powerful than fission bombs. In fusion, light atomic nuclei, typically isotopes of hydrogen like deuterium and tritium, combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy in the process. This is the same reaction that powers the sun. Fusion bombs, also known as thermonuclear weapons, use a fission bomb as a trigger to provide the extremely high temperatures and pressures necessary for fusion to occur.

Fusion weapons are much more powerful than fission bombs and can produce explosions with yields many times greater than those of traditional atomic bombs. The scale of destruction from a thermonuclear bomb can wipe out entire regions, causing immense loss of life and environmental damage.

The History of Nuclear Weapons

The history of nuclear weapons is deeply intertwined with the 20th century’s major geopolitical events, particularly World War II and the Cold War. Understanding this history is crucial for comprehending how nuclear weapons became a central element of global military strategy and international relations.

The Manhattan Project: Birth of the Atomic Bomb

The journey towards the development of nuclear weapons began in the 1930s, when scientists first discovered that the atom could be split to release energy. In 1938, German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann made the groundbreaking discovery of nuclear fission, and soon thereafter, physicists realized that this reaction could be used to release immense amounts of energy. It didn’t take long for military leaders around the world to see the potential of nuclear technology as a new form of warfare.

The U.S. government, concerned that Nazi Germany might be developing nuclear weapons, initiated the Manhattan Project in 1942. Under the leadership of physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the project brought together some of the brightest scientific minds of the time to design the world’s first nuclear bomb. The project culminated in the Trinity test in July 1945, where the first atomic bomb was detonated in the New Mexico desert. This marked a new era in warfare.

The Atomic Age Begins: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Just a few weeks after the Trinity test, the U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Japan—one on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and another on Nagasaki on August 9. These bombings marked the first and only use of nuclear weapons in warfare to date. The devastation caused by these bombs was unparalleled. In an instant, tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more would die later from radiation sickness, injuries, and long-term health effects.

The bombings played a significant role in Japan’s surrender and the end of World War II. However, they also sparked an intense moral and philosophical debate about the use of such destructive weapons. The world had entered the atomic age, and humanity was now faced with the realization that such power could be used to destroy entire civilizations.

The Cold War and the Arms Race

In the years following World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union entered a period of intense geopolitical rivalry known as the Cold War. Both superpowers sought to expand their influence worldwide, and this competition extended to the development of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb in 1949, starting an arms race that would last for decades.

The Cold War era saw the development of ever-more powerful nuclear weapons. The U.S. tested the first hydrogen bomb in 1952, followed by the Soviet Union in 1953. These weapons, capable of enormous destruction, fundamentally altered the nature of warfare and international relations. Both sides developed vast arsenals of nuclear weapons, and the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) emerged, where both the U.S. and the USSR understood that any nuclear exchange would lead to the annihilation of both nations.

The Non-Proliferation Treaty and Global Efforts

As the nuclear arms race escalated, the international community grew increasingly concerned about the spread of nuclear weapons. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signed in 1968, aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons while promoting peaceful uses of nuclear energy. The treaty established a framework for nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, with the goal of limiting the number of countries that could develop nuclear weapons.

While the NPT succeeded in limiting the number of nuclear-armed nations, it also created divisions, as several countries—including India, Pakistan, and Israel—pursued their own nuclear weapons programs outside the treaty framework. In the decades that followed, efforts to reduce global nuclear arsenals through arms control agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), sought to curb the growth of nuclear weapons.

The Impact of Nuclear Weapons

The power of nuclear weapons is staggering, but their effects extend far beyond the immediate destruction caused by a blast. The long-term consequences of a nuclear detonation are felt in various ways: environmental damage, health consequences, geopolitical ramifications, and the psychological trauma experienced by survivors.

Immediate Effects: Devastation on a Global Scale

The immediate effects of a nuclear explosion are catastrophic. The bomb detonates with a flash of intense light, followed by an explosion that sends shockwaves across the landscape. Buildings are flattened, fires ignite, and anyone within the blast radius is either vaporized or severely injured. The force of the blast can cause extreme destruction miles from the epicenter, while the thermal radiation causes third-degree burns and ignites fires across vast areas.

In addition to the blast and thermal effects, a nuclear explosion also releases intense ionizing radiation. This radiation can cause acute radiation sickness, with symptoms ranging from nausea and vomiting to organ failure and death. Radiation exposure also increases the risk of cancer and genetic mutations in the long term.

Fallout and the Aftermath

One of the most enduring dangers of nuclear weapons is the fallout, or radioactive particles that are carried by wind currents after an explosion. Fallout can contaminate large areas, poisoning water supplies, soil, and air. The effects of fallout can last for decades, causing long-term health issues, environmental degradation, and economic disruption.

The cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which were bombed in 1945, remain a stark reminder of the long-term effects of nuclear warfare. Survivors, known as Hibakusha, endured physical and emotional scars that lasted for their entire lives. In addition to the immediate health consequences, they suffered from discrimination and social stigma, as the effects of radiation were often misunderstood.

Psychological Impact: A World Living in Fear

Perhaps one of the most insidious effects of nuclear weapons is their psychological impact. The constant threat of nuclear war during the Cold War created a climate of fear and anxiety that permeated everyday life. People lived under the shadow of mutually assured destruction, never knowing if a single miscalculation could lead to the end of civilization.

In the modern world, while the direct threat of nuclear war may have diminished, the psychological toll remains. The mere existence of nuclear weapons creates an atmosphere of instability, as countries continue to build and stockpile these weapons, and the fear of nuclear terrorism or accidents looms large.

The Future of Nuclear Weapons

As the world moves forward, the future of nuclear weapons remains uncertain. While the Cold War is over, the threat of nuclear proliferation has not disappeared. Several countries that do not possess nuclear weapons have expressed interest in developing them, and the risk of nuclear weapons falling into the hands of non-state actors or terrorists remains a major concern.

Efforts to reduce and eliminate nuclear weapons continue, with many advocating for a world free of nuclear weapons. However, achieving this goal will require significant diplomatic, technological, and political efforts. The challenges are immense, but the potential for a safer, more peaceful world is worth striving for.

The future of nuclear weapons is intricately linked to global security and the decisions made by world leaders. The pursuit of disarmament, non-proliferation, and responsible stewardship of nuclear technology will determine whether humanity continues to live in the shadow of the bomb or whether we move toward a world where nuclear weapons are relegated to history’s dark past.

Conclusion

Nuclear weapons are among the most powerful and destructive forces ever created by humankind. They represent the incredible potential of science and technology, but also the darker side of human ambition. From their inception in the Manhattan Project to their role in the Cold War and their continued existence today, nuclear weapons have left an indelible mark on the course of history.

The question of whether humanity can coexist with these weapons or whether we will eventually move toward a world free from nuclear arms is still unresolved. What is certain is that the story of nuclear weapons is far from over, and their impact—both physical and psychological—will continue to shape the future of our planet for generations to come.

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From the US assassination of Iranian commander Qasem Soleimani to the ongoing case of the jailed mother Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe, Iran has scarcely been out of the headlines in recent months. But how far back does the history of Iran stretch? Here, Professor Ali M Ansari from the University of St Andrews charts the country’s historical lineage, the emergence of Islam and Shiism, and Iran’s attempts to reconcile its traditions with the modern world.

Iran enjoys one of the richest historical lineages of any modern state stretching back several thousand years. This history can be broadly divided into three epochs: the pre-Islamic ancient period (c559 BC to 651 AD); the Islamic era (651 AD to 1800 AD); and the modern era, defined by its encounter with Western modernity from around 1800.

The pre-Islamic ancient period

‘Iranian’ history proper begins with the migration of the Iranian tribes from Central Asia onto what is now known as the Iranian plateau in the 2nd millennium BC. But organised human settlement developed much earlier and Elamite civilisation in south western Iran – southern Iraq today – emerged in the third millennium. By the 1st millennium BC, two distinct Iranian states emerged in the form of the Medes and Persians and their emphatic entrance onto the world stage began with the accession of Cyrus II in 559 BC.

The Achaemenid Persian Empire grew to become the largest contiguous land empire then known to man, impressing both friend and foe alike with its relatively benign administration drawing on religious ideas that would later be associated with Zoroastrianism, the pre-Islamic religion of Iran identified with the mantra “good words, good thoughts and good deeds”. It looms large in the Western imagination because of its failed attempts to conquer the Greek states and its subsequent defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great some 150 years later in the 330s BC. Hellenized rule under Alexander’s successors – the Seleucids – lasted a century until the arrival of a new Iranian dynasty from the east, the Parthians.

The Parthian Empire

The Parthian Empire reshaped Iranian history by importing myths and legends from the east and supplanting the Achaemenids in popular memory. This decentralised kingdom – in which the king was first among equals; a king over other kings, if you will – made up for its fractiousness with longevity (it is the longest lived of all Iranian dynasties) and proved a serious foe to the emergent Roman empire, inflicting upon it one of its greatest defeats. This was at the plains of Carrhae in 53 BC, where the Roman commander Crassus (famous for his defeat of Spartacus) was decisively defeated by a smaller Parthian force largely composed of horse archers, losing some two-thirds of his legions and several ‘eagles’ [Romans Standards]. After 500 years, in 224 AD the Parthians were in turn overthrown by another dynasty, this time from the heartlands of Persia itself, the Sasanians.

The Sasanians were undoubtedly the heirs of the Parthians but their empire was more centralised and the ‘king of kings’ was more than a first among equals. Administration was consolidated and Zoroastrianism was promoted as an official and increasingly well-defined creed. In time Sasanian kings, most notably Khusrau II, would come to symbolise all that was good about pre-Islamic Iran and its administration.

Like their predecessors, the Sasanians proved formidable opponents to the Roman and then Byzantine Empires, engaging in a cycle of conflicts which ultimately exhausted both empires and made them vulnerable to hitherto unforeseen challenges.

The Islamic era

In the 7^th century a new power emerged from the Arabian Peninsula – Islam. Defeating the Byzantines, the Muslim Arab armies eventually conquered and absorbed the Sasanian empire into the new Caliphate. The Iranian empire was too large a morsel for the Caliphate to fully digest, with the result that Iranian ideas on the nature and practice of ‘just’ government and culture began to shape the way in which the Caliphate developed.

Islam transformed the Iranian world view, but the political and religious culture of the Islamic world was in turn shaped by the profound legacy of ancient Iran and many of the leading administrative and scientific minds of the classical Islamic age including the polymath Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and the famous vizierial (ministerial) family of the Barmakids, emanated from the Iranian world.

Indeed the emphatic influence of the Iranian world was made clear with the emergence of the Abbasid Caliphate in 749 AD and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city of Baghdad (around 762 AD), not far from the old Sasanian capital. This Iranian turn was exemplified by the development of the ‘new’ Persian language, now empowered with the adoption of the Arabic alphabet to become the lingua franca of the eastern Islamic world, and in time one of the great literary languages of the world.

The Islamic era would witness another profound development in the history of Iran with the entrance of the Turkic peoples from central Asia from the 11th century, but most consequentially with the eruption of the Mongols (nomadic warriors from the steppes of inner Asia) in the 13th century. The Mongol conquest facilitated the migration of the Turkic tribes onto the plateau – forcing a knock-on migration of Iranians onto the Anatolian plateau – fundamentally altering the political economy of the country from one which was largely sedentary to one with a significant nomadic component, especially in the northern parts of the country.

Moreover, Mongol and Turkic words (such as ‘Khan’) feed into the Persian language adding further dimension to the vocabulary of an already rich and diverse language. In economic terms, however, the wave of nomadic invasions beginning with the Mongols and culminating in the devastation wrought by Tamerlane in the 14th century, resulted in widespread economic dislocation. It was to be many years before the economic lifeblood returned in any meaningful sense.

At the same time, taking the long view, the Mongol conquests ensured that ‘Iran’ as a distinct political entity re-emerged after centuries of seclusion within the wider Islamic world. It says something of the cultural confidence and richness of Iranian civilisation that it was able to re-form as a distinct state in its own right and by the 16th century a new dynasty was to emerge which would add further layers to this distinctiveness.

Iran had been absorbed into the Caliphate but had retained its own language and culture such that it began to influence the shape and direction of travel of the Islamic world. Even the Turkic nomads would in turn come to appreciate the cultural powerhouse that Iran and the Persian world represented, adopting and adapting many of its cultural attributes including the Persian language. With the rise of the Safavids in the 16th century this cultural confidence was given political form once again and in order to consolidate their position the Safavids imposed the minority branch of Islam, Shiism, as the new state religion from 1501.

This proved to be something of a double-edged sword. The adoption of Shiism helped distinguish the Iranian state from its Ottoman rival to the West. But it also served to hinder political ties with the Persianate world of the east. Nonetheless, over two centuries the Safavids oversaw a flourishing of Iranian civilisation, most notably under Shah Abbas I (1587–1629), the only king after the Islamic conquest to be known as ‘the Great’. Indeed, just as Iranians ascribed all pre-Islamic achievements to the reign of Khusrau I, so too was Shah Abbas credited with all and any achievements during the Islamic period.

It was during this period that the first systematic contacts were made between Iran and Europe, as European merchants came to establish commercial, and in some cases, political, ties.

Modern challenges

It is to Iran’s misfortune that the period of the most dramatic growth in European power and western civilisation in the 18th century coincided with a period of political turmoil within Iran itself. The traumatic fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722 resulted in decades of warfare as first Iran re-emerged empowered under the leadership of Nader Shah (1736–47), only to once again descend into turmoil following his death.

As a little-known footnote in history, it was Nader Shah’s invasion and defeat of the Mughal Empire in 1739 that paradoxically opened up India to European penetration in the 18^th century. And by the time Iran emerged from its turmoil by the end of the 18^th century it faced a whole new challenge in the Russian and British empires. These were not just political threats but ideological ones with self-confident European powers who were not in awe of Iranian civilisation – on the contrary, they regarded the political economy of the Iranian state to be archaic and dependent on the authority and despotic power of its kings.

European power approached the world with new ideas about the organisation of the state, the rule of law and constitutionalism, all of which were alien to the Iranian world but which gained traction among a group of intellectuals who regarded the salvation of Iran in the adoption of these new and innovative forms of political and economic organisation. Iranians, so used to educating the world, found themselves in the reluctant position of being the student. Throughout the 19th century Iranian intellectuals and activists sought to promote reform but were faced with the objections of reactionary elements within Iran (most notably a monarchy reluctant to concede power) and with the ambivalence of imperial European powers ultimately more anxious to maintain the balance of power.

Eventually, at the turn of the 20^th century, in 1906, the first of Iran’s revolutions – the Constitutional Revolution – established a parliamentary system on the British model, complete with a constitution and separation of powers. It was a seminal moment that altered the political landscape of the country. But its ambitions were high and its promise remained unfulfilled as a new dynasty – the Pahlavis (1925–79) – sought to impose revolution from above.

With the emergence of the Pahlavis in 1925 the revolutionary impetus of 1906 was adopted with some vigour by the new monarch supported initially by many of the intellectuals of the period who were anxious to see the creation of a modern state that would enable their many reforms to education and the judicial system to be realised. Reza Shah’s rule oversaw a transformation of the country but the reforms he oversaw were only partially fulfilled, with the growth in the power of the state not being matched by a growth in civil society and civic rights.

Overthrown following an Allied occupation (1941–46) in the turmoil of the Second World War, he was succeeded by his young son Mohammad Reza Shah (1941–79) who for the first period of his reign had to contend with growing factionalism as well as the continued interference of foreign powers. The crisis over the continued Soviet occupation of Azerbaijan was resolved in 1946, but a more serious crisis over Iran’s oil industry resulted in an Anglo-American orchestrated coup to overthrow the nationalist prime minister Dr Mohammad Mosaddeq who had encouraged the Shah to reign rather than rule. As with the revolution of 1906, the coup of 1953 was to cast a long shadow over Iranian politics and the Shah struggled to emerge from it.

Royal autocracy and the ‘Islamic’ revolution

In the 1960s the Shah felt strong enough to launch a ‘White’ revolution of his own, further transforming the socio-economic landscape of the country but failing to match these dramatic changes with a measure of political reform. Indeed, far from democratising, the 1970s witnessed a retrenchment of royal autocracy. Political stagnation with social and economic change proved to be a combustible combination to which was added a religious revival centred on the figure of Ayatollah Khomeini. By 1978 the Shah, faced with opposition from nationalists, the left and the religious groups, found himself no longer master of his political domain, increasingly at a loss as to how to react to the groundswell of discontent.

He went into exile in January 1979. Two weeks later Ayatollah Khomeini returned to the adulation of the crowds (pictured above) and in short order the monarchy was replaced by an Islamic Republic. But this new ‘Islamic’ revolution proved no more successful in reconciling Iran’s traditions with the challenges of modernity. The seizure of the US Embassy in November 1979 and the start of a protracted war with Iraq in 1980, which lasted to 1988, both scarred and defined the emergent Islamic Republic. Rampant factionalism was not expunged by the violent suppression of the Left, and the Islamic Republic has been characterised by fierce debates over the nature and character of the state dividing between those who favour the republican institutions and those who seek the establishment of an Islamic government.

The dominance of the ‘Islamists’ and the growing autocracy of the ‘supreme leader’ indicate that the problems of 1906 remain unresolved and that 1979 simply witnessed the ‘crown’ being replaced by the ‘turban’.

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The Panama Canal is one of the most significant engineering feats in history, providing a critical maritime shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Spanning 50 miles (80 kilometers) across the Isthmus of Panama, the canal greatly reduces the travel distance for ships, allowing them to avoid the long and perilous journey around the southern tip of South America via Cape Horn. Its history is marked by political intrigue, monumental construction challenges, and immense international impact.

Early Interest and Exploration
The idea of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama dates back centuries. Early explorers recognized the strategic and economic advantages of creating a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific.

Spanish Exploration (16th Century): As early as 1513, after Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the isthmus and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the New World, Spanish explorers envisioned the construction of a canal. However, the technological limitations and the immense geographic challenges made this dream impossible at the time.

18th and 19th Centuries: Various powers, including Spain and France, considered canal routes across Central America, including Panama and Nicaragua. Panama, with its narrow landmass, was always seen as a potential site. By the 19th century, European and American governments were actively discussing the possibilities.

The French Attempt (1881–1894)
The first serious attempt to construct the Panama Canal was undertaken by France, led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the famous engineer who had successfully overseen the construction of the Suez Canal (1869). However, the project proved far more difficult than expected.

Lesseps’ Leadership: After his triumph with the Suez Canal, de Lesseps assumed the Panama Canal would be similarly straightforward. In 1881, the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique began construction under his direction. He initially planned for a sea-level canal, similar to the Suez, but Panama’s geography and tropical environment posed far greater challenges.

Challenges and Failures: The French effort was plagued by numerous obstacles:
The tropical rain forest environment, heavy rains, and landslides made excavation difficult.
The workers, many from the Caribbean and Europe, suffered from diseases like malaria and yellow fever. These diseases killed tens of thousands of workers.
The project’s funding ran out due to escalating costs, mismanagement, and corruption (in what became known as the Panama Canal Scandal).

Collapse of the French Effort: By 1889, the French company was bankrupt, and construction was halted. A new company, Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, made some progress, but ultimately, the French effort was abandoned by 1894, with only about 40% of the project completed.

The American Involvement (1904–1914)
The United States saw great strategic and economic value in a canal across Panama and stepped in after the French failure.

U.S. Interest in the Canal: By the late 19th century, the U.S. was emerging as a global power, and an isthmian canal was seen as critical to its naval and commercial interests. A canal would drastically reduce travel time for U.S. warships and merchant vessels between the east and west coasts. Initially, the U.S. considered a route through Nicaragua but ultimately decided on Panama.

Panama’s Independence: At the time, Panama was part of Colombia, and negotiations between the U.S. and Colombia to acquire rights for canal construction broke down. In 1903, with American encouragement, Panamanian nationalists declared independence from Colombia. The U.S. quickly recognized Panama’s independence and signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which gave the U.S. control over the Canal Zone, a 10-mile-wide strip of land across Panama, in exchange for financial compensation and guarantees of Panama’s sovereignty.

Construction by the U.S.: In 1904, the United States took over the French infrastructure and began construction under the leadership of President Theodore Roosevelt.

Chief Engineer John F. Stevens focused first on improving the living and working conditions for the labor force. This included constructing hospitals, housing, and proper sanitation systems.
The appointment of Dr. William Gorgas, who had studied tropical diseases, was crucial in eradicating yellow fever and controlling malaria in the Canal Zone, vastly improving worker health and safety.
Technical Challenges: One of the most difficult engineering challenges was cutting through the Culebra Cut, a section of the Continental Divide. Landslides frequently hampered progress, but steady work and new excavation techniques allowed the project to proceed.

Locks System: Unlike the original French vision of a sea-level canal, the U.S. designed the canal with a system of locks that would raise ships 85 feet above sea level to cross the isthmus and then lower them back to sea level on the other side. The Gatun Dam created an artificial lake (Gatun Lake), which became a key part of the canal system.

Completion: After a decade of work and enormous financial and human investment, the canal was completed. On August 15, 1914, the SS Ancon became the first official ship to transit the Panama Canal. The U.S. spent around $375 million on the project, including the cost of the original French effort, making it one of the most expensive construction projects of its time.

Strategic and Economic Importance
The Panama Canal had a profound impact on global shipping and geopolitics:

Military and Strategic Use: For the U.S., the canal was a critical asset, especially for its Navy, as it allowed for rapid deployment of military forces between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It became an essential part of U.S. defense strategy, particularly during World War I, World War II, and the Cold War.

Global Trade: The canal drastically reduced the time and cost of shipping goods. A voyage from New York to San Francisco, for example, was shortened by about 8,000 miles, making it much more efficient and economically viable.

Panama Canal under U.S. Control
From its opening in 1914 until the late 20th century, the Panama Canal was operated by the United States. While the canal brought significant economic benefits, U.S. control over the Canal Zone became a source of tension between the U.S. and Panama.

Tensions with Panama: Panamanians resented the presence of U.S. troops and the economic and political control that the U.S. exerted over the Canal Zone. This tension occasionally erupted into protests and violence, particularly in the 1960s, when Panamanian students and citizens demonstrated for sovereignty over the canal.

The Panama Canal Treaties and Transfer (1977–1999)
In 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos signed the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, which provided for the gradual transfer of the canal from U.S. control to Panama. Under these agreements:

Panama was to gain full control of the canal on December 31, 1999.
The canal was to remain neutral and open to vessels of all nations, even in times of war.
On December 31, 1999, the Panama Canal was officially handed over to Panama, ending nearly a century of U.S. control. Since then, the canal has been managed by the Panama Canal Authority, a Panamanian government agency.

Modern Developments and Expansion
Expansion Project: To accommodate modern shipping demands, particularly the rise of super-sized cargo ships, Panama began work on a major expansion project in the 21st century. Known as the Panama Canal Expansion (Third Set of Locks), it was completed in 2016.

This project added a new set of locks and widened the existing channels, allowing for the transit of much larger ships, known as New Panamax vessels, which are nearly double the size of the ships that the original canal could accommodate.
Economic and Global Importance: The canal continues to play a critical role in global shipping and trade, facilitating the passage of thousands of vessels each year. It remains a vital artery for world commerce, particularly between Asia and the Americas.

Environmental and Geopolitical Concerns
The Panama Canal has had environmental impacts, including deforestation, water management issues, and ecological disruption. Additionally, climate change and fluctuating rainfall patterns pose challenges for maintaining water levels in Gatun Lake, which is critical for the canal’s operation.

Geopolitically, the canal remains a strategically important asset. Its neutrality and openness are crucial for global trade, and any disruption would have significant economic and political ramifications.

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Greenland is a located between the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, and although it is technically a part of the North American continent, historically it has been linked with European countries like Denmark and Norway. Today, Greenland is considered an independent territory within the Kingdom of Denmark, and as such, Greenland is dependent on Denmark for the majority of its gross domestic product.

By area, Greenland is distinctive in that it is the world’s largest island, with an area of 836,330 square miles (2,166,086 square kilometers). It is not a continent, but due to its large area and the relatively small population of less than 60,000 people, Greenland is also the most sparsely populated country in the world.

Greenland’s largest city, Nuuk, also serves as its capital. It’s one of the world’s smallest capital cities, with a population of only 17,984 as of 2019. All of Greenland’s cities are built along the 27,394-mile coastline because it is the only area in the country that is ice-free. Most of these cities are also along Greenland’s west coast because the northeastern side is comprised of the Northeast Greenland National Park.

History of Greenland

Greenland is thought to have been inhabited since prehistoric times by various Paleo-Eskimo groups; however, specific archaeological research does show the Inuit entering Greenland around 2500 BCE, and it wasn’t until 986 CE that European settlement and exploration started, with Norwegians and Icelanders settling on Greenland’s west coast.

These first settlers were eventually known as the Norse Greenlanders, though it wasn’t until the 13th century that Norway took them over, and subsequently entered into a union with Denmark.

In 1946, the United States offered to buy Greenland from Denmark but the country refused to sell the island. In 1953, Greenland officially became a part of the Kingdom of Denmark and in 1979, Denmark’s Parliament gave the country powers of home rule. In 2008, a referendum for greater independence on Greenland’s part was approved, and in 2009 Greenland took over the responsibility of its own government, laws, and natural resources. In addition, Greenland’s citizens were recognized as a separate culture of people, even though Denmark still controls Greenland’s defense and foreign affairs.

Greenland’s current head of state is Denmark’s queen, Margrethe II, but the Prime Minister of Greenland is Kim Kielsen, who serves as the head of the country’s autonomous government.

Geography, Climate, and Topography

Because of its very high latitude, Greenland has an arctic to a subarctic climate with cool summers and very cold winters. For example its capital, Nuuk, has an average January low temperature of 14 degrees (-10 C) and an average July high of just 50 degrees (9.9 C); because of this, its citizens can practice very little agriculture and most of its products are forage crops, greenhouse vegetables, sheep, reindeer, and fish. Greenland mostly relies on imports from other countries.

Greenland’s topography is mainly flat but there is a narrow mountainous coast, with the highest point on the island’s tallest mountain, Bunnbjørn Fjeld, which towers over the island nation at 12,139 feet. Additionally, most of Greenland’s land area is covered by an ice sheet and two-thirds of the country is subject to permafrost.

This massive ice sheet found in Greenland is important to climate change and has made the region popular among scientists who have worked to drill ice cores in order to understand how the Earth’s climate has changed over time; also, because the island is covered with so much ice, it has the potential to significantly raise sea levels if the ice were to melt with global warming.

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One of the world’s worst humanitarian crises is unfolding in Yemen. Even before the current war, this desert nation on the edge of the Arabian Peninsula, home to 28 million people, was already the poorest country in the Arab world. It wasn’t always that way, but Yemen’s complex history can help us understand the current conflict. Here’s a brief timeline showing how events and pressures have combined to devastating effect.

Early History

Yemen has played a small by significant role in world history. The Queen of Sheba in the Hebrew Bible and the Three Wise Men of the New Testament are traditionally linked to Yemen.  While coffee perhaps originated in Ethiopia, Yemen for centuries was the primary producer, exported through the legendary (and now flavorful) port of Mocha. For a while Yemen was doing so well that the Romans called the area “Arabia Felix,” flourishing (or happy) Arabia.

1500s: Ottomans absorb part of Yemen into their empire, but are expelled in the 1600s.

19^th Century: The Formation of Today’s Yemen

This is when the political contours of today’s Yemen really started to emerge, with distinct northern and southern regions, whose tribal, religious, and geographic divisions still complicate Yemeni politics today.

1839: As part of their Empire, the British set up a protectorate around the port city of Aden and rule southeastern Yemen.

1918: Shia imams declare a kingdom in North Yemen and gain independence from the Ottoman Empire.

1960s: A military rebellion and six-year civil war in the 1960s, in which Saudi Arabia and Egypt backed opposite sides, overthrows the kingdom and establishes the Yemen Arab Republic.

1967: The British leave southern Yemen, and the People’s Republic of Southern Yemen is created.

1970: The People’s Republic becomes the Marxist People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, known as South Yemen, a client state of Moscow. Leaders in both north and south Yemen face periodic civil uprisings and restive tribes.

1990: The end of the Cold War a year earlier brings profound change in Yemen. Communist subsidies to south Yemen evaporate, and the two Yemens merge into one. Soon after unification, President Ali Abdullah Saleh provokes a crisis with Yemen’s Gulf neighbors and the United States by refusing to condemn Saddam Hussein’s August 1990 invasion of Kuwait.

1994: Simmering north-south tensions once more erupte, with President Saleh sending armed forces to crush a southern independence civil war. (The Southern Transitional Council, which in June 2018 seized control in parts of the south, grew out of this southern independence tradition).

The Threat of Terrorism

2000: 17 U.S. personnel are killed in the October bombing of the USS Cole in Aden, focusing international attention on a rapidly expanding terrorist threat inside ungoverned areas in Yemen in the form of an offshoot of Al Qaida known as Al Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP).

2004: As the United States and others push President Saleh to concentrate on fighting AQAP, Saleh launches a series of brutal battles, backed by Saudi Arabia, against northern Yemeni Zayidi Shia fighters known as Houthis, whom he accuses of separatism and of trying to impose their religious orthodoxy on the state. The Houthis, in turn, complain of discrimination and disenfranchisement under Saleh’s autocratic rule. (Yemen’s population is 40-45% Zayidi Shia, with Sunni Muslims making up most of the remainder. Zayidi Shi’ism is distinct from Iran’s Shi’ism.)

2008: Eighteen Yemenis are killed in a September 2008 terrorist attack against the U.S. Embassy in the capital Sana’a. Concerns grow about AQAP and the United States trains Yemeni counter-terrorism forces and uses armed drones to target suspected terrorist leaders.

2011: One such drone strike kills AQAP leader (and U.S. citizen) Anwar al-Awlaki. The policy of drone strikes draws criticism for resulting in civilian deaths. With Yemen’s civil war creating security vacuums in many parts of the country, AQAP remains a threat today and is the justification given by the United Arab Emirates and others for their troop presence in southern Yemen.

Fragmentation and Catastrophe

2011: In Yemen’s version of the Arab uprisings, protests in Sana’a initially concentrate on corruption and economic hardships. Demands for widespread government changes grow, fueled in part by casualties from the heavy-handed government response. Yemeni journalist and activist Tawakkul Karman becomes the face of the protests for her role in organizing demands for respect for human rights and is later jointly awarded the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize. Concerned about instability in their backyards, Yemen’s Gulf neighbors draw on U.S. support and their own financial muscle to persuade President Saleh to resign in favor of his Vice President, Abderabbu Mansour al-Hadi, in a transitional arrangement known as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) initiative.

2012: As part of the GCC initiative, Saleh receives immunity from local prosecution and Hadi runs unopposed for a two-year term as transitional president. Today Hadi, of course, remains president of Yemen’s officially recognized, but exiled, government.

2013: Backed by the Security Council and as called for in the GCC initiative, UN Special Envoy Jamal Benomar facilitates a Yemeni National Dialogue Conference (NDC), with participation from Yemen’s diverse political groups (including representatives from the restive south and the Houthi political party named Ansar Allah) and civil society.

2014: The NDC outcome is released and praised inside and outside Yemen as a model of compromise and of inclusive representation. Among other things, the NDC document extends Hadi’s term for a year to oversee conclusion of the transition and multi-party elections, gives 50-50 representation between north and south in a legislative body, and guarantees freedom of religion and a non-sectarian state.

2014: Houthi-Sunni clashes in the summer complicate implementation of the NDC outcome.  Popular protests sparked by a reduction in fuel subsidies erupt against the Hadi government in September, and the Houthis seize the opportunity to move militarily – thus breaking the NDC in which they had (reluctantly) participated. Allied with former President Saleh, their former nemesis, the Houthis quickly prevail.

February 2015: Hadi and his cabinet, after briefly being held hostage by the Houthis, flee to Saudi Arabia, leaving the Houthis in practical, if not legal, control of the institutions of the state.

March 2015: The Saudi-led military intervention in Yemen begins with the stated goals of reversing the Houthi military conquest of Yemen, restoring the Hadi government to Sana’a, securing Saudi Arabia’s southern border from Houthi raids and air-strikes, and preventing outside (e.g., Iranian) interference on the Arabian Peninsula.

April 2015: While not endorsing military action itself, the UN Security Council adopts Resolution 2216, endorsing the political goals of Houthi military surrender and return to UN-facilitated political talks.

January 2018: Southern Yemeni separatists – backed by the United Arab Emirates – seize control of Aden, the main city in the south.

November 2019: Separatists and government sign power-sharing agreement to end conflict in southern Yemen.

Today: More than two and a half years later, Yemen’s war consists of several distinct but overlapping parts – Houthis vs. the Saudi-led coalition, Houthis against Yemeni Sunnis in places such as Ta’izz, a southern independence insurgency against both Houthi-controlled Sana’s and the Hadi government, an anti-terrorism campaign, and a Saudi-Iranian proxy war. With victory in any of these wars elusive, the losers are the Yemeni people enduring the world’s worst humanitarian crisis.

Respite will come when global and regional powers implement and enforce an end to hostilities, deliver protected, uninterrupted, and large-scale humanitarian assistance, and reach a political settlement that puts the needs of the Yemeni people first and foremost.

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The Knights Templar was a large organization of devout Christians during the medieval era who carried out an important mission: to protect European travelers visiting sites in the Holy Land while also carrying out military operations. A wealthy, powerful and mysterious order that has fascinated historians and the public for centuries, tales of the Knights Templar, their financial and banking acumen, their military prowess and their work on behalf of Christianity during the Crusades still circulate throughout modern culture.

Who Were the Knights Templar?

After Christian armies captured Jerusalem from Muslim control in 1099 during the Crusades, groups of pilgrims from across Western Europe started visiting the Holy Land. Many of them, however, were robbed and killed as they crossed through Muslim-controlled territories during their journey.

Around 1118, a French knight named Hugues de Payens created a military order along with eight relatives and acquaintances, calling it the Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon—later known simply as the Knights Templar.

With the support of Baldwin II, the ruler of Jerusalem, they set up headquarters on that city’s sacred Temple Mount, the source of their now-iconic name, and pledged to protect Christian visitors to Jerusalem.

The Pope’s Endorsement

Initially, the Knights Templar faced criticism from some religious leaders. But in 1129, the group received the formal endorsement of the Catholic Church and support from Bernard of Clairvaux, a prominent French abbot. Bernard authored “In Praise of the New Knighthood,” a text that glorified the Knights Templar and bolstered their growth.

In 1139, Pope Innocent II issued a Papal Bull that allowed the Knights Templar special rights. Among them, the Templars were exempt from paying taxes, permitted to build their own oratories and were held to no one’s authority except the Pope’s.

The Knights Templar at Work

The Knights Templar set up a prosperous network of banks and gained enormous financial influence. Their banking system allowed religious pilgrims to deposit assets in their home countries and withdraw funds in the Holy Land.

The order became known for its austere code of conduct (which included no pointy shoes and no kissing their mothers, rules outlined in “The Rule of the Templars”) and signature style of dress, which featured a white habit emblazoned with a simple red cross.

Members swore an oath of poverty, chastity and obedience. They weren’t allowed to drink, gamble or swear. Prayer was essential to their daily life, and the Templars expressed particular adoration for the mother of Jesus, the Virgin Mary.

As the Knights Templar grew in size and status, it established new chapters throughout Western Europe. At the height of their influence, the Templars boasted a sizable fleet of ships, owned the Mediterranean island of Cyprus, and served as a primary bank and lending institution to European monarchs and nobles.

Expanded Duties of the Knights

Though its original purpose was to protect pilgrims from danger, the Knights Templar progressively expanded its duties. They became defenders of the Crusader states in the Holy Land and were known as brave, highly skilled warriors.

The group developed a reputation as fierce fighters during the Crusades, driven by religious fervor and forbidden from retreating unless significantly outnumbered.

The Templars built numerous castles and fought—and often won—battles against Islamic armies. Their fearless style of fighting became a model for other military orders.

The Fall of the Knights Templar

In the late 12th century, Muslim armies retook Jerusalem and turned the tide of the Crusades, forcing the Knights Templar to relocate several times. The Fall of Acre in 1291 marked the destruction of the last remaining Crusader refuge in the Holy Land.

European support for the military campaigns in the Holy Land began to erode over the decades that followed. Additionally, many secular and religious leaders became increasingly critical of the Templars’ wealth and power.

By 1303, the Knights Templar lost its last foothold in the Muslim world and established a base of operations in Paris. There, King Philip IV of France resolved to bring down the order, perhaps because the Templars had denied the indebted ruler additional loans.

Arrests and Executions

On Friday, October 13, 1307, scores of French Templars were arrested, including the order’s grand master Jacques de Molay.

Many of the knights were brutally tortured until they confessed to false charges, which included heresy, homosexuality, financial corruption, devil-worshipping, fraud, spitting on the cross and more.

A few years later, dozens of Templars were burned at the stake in Paris for their confessions. De Molay was executed in 1314.

Under pressure from King Philip, Pope Clement V reluctantly dissolved the Knights Templar in 1312. The group’s property and monetary assets were given to a rival order, the Knights Hospitallers. However, it’s thought by some that King Philip and King Edward II of England seized most of the Knights Templar’s wealth.

The Knights Templar Today

The Catholic Church has acknowledged that the persecution of the Knights Templar was unjustified. The church claims that Pope Clement was pressured by secular rulers to destroy the order.

While most historians agree that the Knights Templar fully disbanded 700 years ago, there are some people who believe the order went underground and remains in existence in some form to this day.

In the 18th century, some groups, most notably the Freemasons, revived several of the medieval knights’ symbols, rituals and traditions.

Currently, there are several international organizations styled after the Knights Templar that the public can join. These groups have representatives around the world and aim to uphold the values and traditions of the original medieval order.

Throughout the years, various tales have surfaced about the knights’ mysterious work. More recently, stories about the legendary Templars have found their way into popular books and movies.

Some historians have claimed that the Knights Templar may have secretly guarded the Shroud of Turin (a linen cloth believed to be placed on the body of Jesus Christ before burial) for hundreds of years after the Crusades ended.

Another widespread belief is that the knights discovered and kept religious artifacts and relics, such as the Holy Grail, the Ark of the Covenant and parts of the cross from Christ’s crucifixion.

Various other ideas and myths exist about the Knights Templar’s secret operations. The popular novel and film The Da Vinci Code presents a theory that the Templars were involved in a conspiracy to preserve the bloodline of Jesus Christ.

Although much of these speculations are considered fictional, there’s no question that the Knights Templar have provoked intrigue and fascination and will likely continue to do so for years to come.

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In the 7th century BC, a people called the Scythians lived in what is now Ukraine. Later the Greeks settled on the north coast of the Black Sea and they founded city-states there. Slavs settled Ukraine in the 5th and 6th centuries AD.

Then in the 9th century, Swedish Vikings sailed along rivers into the heart of Eastern Europe. Some of them settled in Ukraine. In 882 a Viking named Oleg captured Kyiv and it became the capital of a powerful state. In 988 under Vladimir I Ukraine converted to Christianity.

However, in the 11th and 12th centuries, the state broke up into fragments. Disaster struck in 1240 when the Mongols, led by Batu, grandson of Genghis Khan conquered southern and eastern Ukraine. However northern and western Ukraine remained independent until the 14th century when it was taken over by the Poles and Lithuanians. They gradually drove back the Mongols or Tartars. However, the Tartars still held Crimea and in the 15th century, they came under the domination of the Turkish Empire.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, some serfs (halfway between slaves and freemen) ran away from Polish landlords and settled on the steppes of Ukraine. They were called Kozaky (Cossacks), which means freemen. The Cossacks formed self-governing communities. Eventually, they united to form the Cossack Hetmanate led by a hetman (general).

In the late 17th century, Poland came to dominate western Ukraine while Russia dominated eastern Ukraine. Then in the 18th century Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia was determined to absorb eastern Ukraine into Russia. The Cossack Hetmanate was abolished in 1764.

Meanwhile, in the 18th century, Poland was declining and in 1772-1795 Russia and Austria decided to help themselves to Polish territory. Most of western Ukraine was taken by Russia (except for a small strip in the far west, which went to Austria). Finally, in 1783 Russia conquered Crimea. Catherine the Great also founded Odessa.

20th Century Ukraine

In the 19th century, Ukraine was firmly under Russian control. But from the mid-19th-century nationalism spread. In 1918 while Russia was engaged in civil war Ukraine became independent for a short time. However, in 1921 the Russians forced Ukraine to become part of the Soviet Union.

Stalin decided that farms in Ukraine should be collectivized. In other words, peasants would be deprived of their land and livestock and made to work as farm laborers on land now owned by the state. Not surprisingly many Ukrainian peasants bitterly resisted even slaughtering their own livestock rather than handing it over to the state.

Stalin was determined to crush the Ukrainian peasants and he caused a terrible famine in 1932-33 that took the lives of millions of innocent people. In 1932 collective farms were given completely unrealistic quotas to fill. Soviet law decreed that the peasants would not be allowed to keep any grain until they had met their quotas. They could not, of course, meet them so Soviet officials simply confiscated all the grain they wanted leaving the peasants to starve. How many people died in this man-made famine is not known for sure but it was probably about 7 million. This horrific artificial famine is called the Holodomor.

However, Ukraine’s suffering was not over. During 1937-39 Stalin unleashed purges in which many Ukrainians were executed or sent to prison camps. Then in 1941, the Germans invaded. They murdered millions of Ukrainians. However, by 1943 the Germans were losing the war and the Red Army recaptured Kyiv on 6 November 1943. Afterward, Stalin took reprisals against anyone he suspected of being disloyal or of collaborating with the Germans. All the Crimean Tatars were deported.

In 1986 there was a disaster at the nuclear power plant at Chernobyl. The authorities tried to cover up the disaster and it caused much resentment. In the late 1980s, Ukrainians became increasingly dissatisfied with rule from Moscow and in 1989 the RUKH (Ukrainian People’s Movement for Restructuring) was formed and in 1990 demonstrations were held.

With the collapse of Communism and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 Ukraine once more became independent. However, the transition from Socialism to Capitalism was a painful one. Ukraine suffered high inflation and economic decline for some years. However economic growth eventually began again.

21st Century Ukraine

The transition from dictatorship to democracy also did not go smoothly. In late 2004 Viktor Yanukovych won a presidential election. However many people believed the election was rigged and supporters of the other candidate Viktor Yushchenko held demonstrations for 10 days. Eventually, a rerun was held and Yushchenko was elected. He became president early in 2005. This was called the Orange Revolution.

Ukraine suffered badly in the economic downturn of 2008-2009. But that was temporary and Ukraine recovered.

In 2013 and 2014 a wave of demonstrations swept across Ukraine when President Yanukovych rejected an association treaty with the EU. In February 2014 the Ukrainian parliament voted to remove Yanukovych from power. After the new elections, Petro Poroshenko became president of Ukraine.

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What are the 10 deadliest wars in human history? Everybody should have one simple right “the right to live”, but sometimes people will deny innocent people these rights and murder them (genocides, ruthless dictators, civil wars, mass executions etc.), and usually when these type of things take place a superior power will invade and stop the dictator or regime that’s committing atrocities.

One thing that the human race was doing from the beginning of time is fighting with each other. Many times the fighting got out of hand and consumed the innocent people. Here we compiled a list of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll. It covers the lowest estimate of death as well as the highest estimate, the name of the event, the location, and the start and end of each event. Some events overlap categories.

World War II

World War II or the Second World War was a global war that was underway by 1939 and ended in 1945. It involved most of the world’s nations, including all of the great powers: Eventually forming two opposing military alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, with more than 100 million military personnel mobilized.

In a state of “total war,” the major participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by significant events involving the mass death of civilians, including the Holocaust and the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare. It was the deadliest conflict in human history, resulting in 50 million to over 70 million fatalities.

Taiping Rebellion

The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread civil war in southern China from 1850 to 1864, led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan, who having received visions, maintained that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ against the ruling Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. About 20 million people died, mainly civilians, in one of the deadliest military conflicts in history.

World War I

World War I was a major war centered in Europe that began in the summer of 1914 and lasted until November 1918. It involved all of the world’s great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies and the Central Powers.

More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of great technological advances in firepower without corresponding advances in mobility.

Mongol Conquests

The Mongol Empire initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries. Beginning in the Central Asian steppes, it eventually stretched from Eastern Europe to the Sea of Japan, covered Siberia in the north and extended southward into Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and the Middle East. It is commonly referred to as the largest contiguous empire in the history of the world.

At its greatest extent it spanned 6,000 mi (9,700 km), covered an area of 33,000,000 km2 (12,700,000 sq mi), 22% of the Earth’s total land area, and held sway over a population of 100 million.

An Lushan Rebellion

The An Lushan Rebellion took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from December 16, 755 to February 17, 763. An Lushan, an ex-Tang general, declared himself emperor, establishing the rival Yan Dynasty in Northern China. The rebellion spanned the reign of three Tang emperors before it was quashed.

During that time, the registered population declined by up to 36 million, though most of this was due to the breakdown of the census system during the war.

Qing dynasty conquest of the Ming Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty also known as the Manchu Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China. The dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan Aisin Gioro in modern northeast China.

Starting in 1644 it expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories, establishing the Empire of the Great Qing. Complete pacification of China was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor.

Conquests of Timur-e-Lang                                

Timur was in his lifetime a controversial figure and remains so today. He sought to restore the Mongol Empire, yet his heaviest blow was against the Islamized Tatar Golden Horde. He was more at home in an urban environment than on the steppe.

Timur styled himself a ghazi while conducting wars that severely affected some Muslim states, for example the Ottoman Empire. A great patron of the arts, his campaigns also caused vast destruction.

Dungan Revolt

The uprising was chaotic and often involved warring factions of bands and military leaders with no goal or purpose, merely to fight, on the western bank of the Yellow River. A common misconception is that it was directed against the Qing Dynasty, but there is no evidence at all showing that they intended to attack the capital of Beijing.

When that rebellion failed, mass emigration of the Dungan people into Imperial Russia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan ensued.

Russian Civil War

The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and subsequently gained control throughout Russia.

Napoleonic Wars

The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon’s French Empire by opposing coalitions. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionized European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly owing to the application of modern mass conscription.

French power rose quickly as Napoleon’s armies conquered much of Europe but collapsed rapidly after France’s disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon’s empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France and the creation of the Concert of Europe.

So what was the deadliest war ever?

By far the most costly war in terms of human life was World War II (1939–45), in which the total number of fatalities, including battle deaths and civilians of all countries, is estimated to have been 56.4 million, assuming 26.6 million Soviet fatalities and 7.8 million Chinese civilians were killed.

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Ethiopia boasts one of the oldest and most colourful histories of any African kingdom. In Prehistory, it was the home of the earliest hominids on this earth. Its traditional history stretches back to the time of King Solomon.

Few know much of the mighty Axumite Empire that grew up in the north of the country after the birth of Christ and which was a major trading centre for some seven hundred years. Neither have many people heard of the awe-inspiring rock-hewn churches that were constructed during the Middle Ages in Lalibela high on the Ethiopian plateau.

Since that time, the country has had very varied fortunes in all sorts of ways.

With frequent incursions from neighbouring lands and particularly from the influences of Islam, social and political development was somewhat piecemeal for a long time, with notable periods of relative peace and stability such as that provided by the rule of King Fasiledes in the 17th century in Gondar.

It was the Emperor Tewodros who was to make real progress with his vision of a united Ethiopia in the 19th century until his unfortunate demise following the arrival of British troops under Robert Napier in 1868.

Ethiopia’s history in the 20th century is really fascinating, with great leaders such as Emperor Menelik and Emperor Haile Selassie, with dramatic events such as the Italian occupation before the Second World War, and with political turmoil provided by seventeen years of Communist government and the following decade of uneasy movement towards democracy.

Prehistory

Ethiopia is situated at the north end of the great African Rift Valley and has been the site of some amazing archaeological finds in recent years.

In 1974, the archaeologist Donald Johansen was working near Hadar in the north-east of Ethiopia and discovered the human skeleton of a female dating back 3.2 million years, a member of the group Australopithecus afarensis. This female was named ‘Lucy’ by the digging team as the Beatles’ hit “Lucy in the sky with diamonds” was playing in the camp at the time. To the Ethiopians, however, she is known as ‘dinkenesh’ or ‘birkenesh’ meaning ‘wonderful’. The skeleton is now on view on the ground floor of the National Museum just above Arat Kilo in Addis Ababa.

Other more recent finds near Hadar have served to confirm this part of the Rift Valley as a major site of early man’s development.

We know that the Ancient Egyptians traded in the Land of Punt for such commodities as gold, myrrh and ivory and this is thought to have been situated in the Horn of Africa of which Ethiopia is a part.

Local tradition has the Queen of Sheba as an Ethiopian queen who travelled to King Solomon in Jerusalem. Their child, Menelik, was to be the first in the Solomonic line of Ethiopian emperors, eventually culminating with Emperor Haile Selassie in the 20th century. Tradition also says that Menelik brought the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem to Ethiopia and that it still exists under close guard in the St Mary Zion chapel in Axum.

Before the birth of Christ was developed the language of Ge’ez, a kind of Latin and a forerunner of today’s lingua franca Amharic. Ge’ez is still spoken by priests today.

Axumite Empire

The north of Ethiopia was to be of world importance as an influential trading centre during the first seven centuries after the birth of Christ.

Centring on the city of Axum, today an important city on the Historic Route, and strategically situated near to the bottom of the Red Sea, it was a vital commercial crossroads between Egypt and the Mediterranean and the eastern countries of India and Ceylon. Exotic trade flourished in this richly fertile and agricultural area.

Exports from Axum included ivory, animal skins, rhino horn and frankincense. Imports came from India, Arabia and Egypt and included wine, olive oil, iron and glassware. During the great years of the Axumite Empire, coinage in bronze, silver and gold was produced, immense stone monuments were erected and Christianity was to introduced to Ethiopia.

Middle Ages

By the early 12th century, the importance of Axum had declined and the capital of Ethiopia had shifted to near present day Lalibela, high up on the central plateau.

Of this period we know comparatively little, and yet it is from this time that dates one of the most extraordinary archaeological sites in the world, the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.

Legend has it that King Lalibela himself travelled to Jerusalem and so wondered at the buildings he saw there that he determined to create an Ethiopian Jerusalem high in the Lasta Mountains.

These amazing churches attest to an epoch in Ethiopian history which must have known immense technical skill and competence and yet of which we have almost no written record. Tradition tells us that the world’s greatest craftsmen toiled during the day to create these monuments while bands of angels took over to continue the work by night!

It was also during the Middle Ages in Europe that the name of Prester John came to be associated with Ethiopia at the royal courts. This legendary priest apparently ruled over a land full of riches and luxury where precious gems and all manner of exotic items were plentiful. It is thought that the first Portuguese expeditions to Ethiopia in the 16th century and the even earlier travels of the Knights Templar might well have been inspired by the idea of discovering Prester John’s kingdom.

17^th Century

The years leading up to the 17th century were to see all manner of religious challenges from outside the country, notably from the Moslems under Mohammed Gragn the Left-Handed in the 1530s and, more peaceably, from the Jesuits in the early 1600s. At the same time, the Oromos from Kenya and the south of the country were making strong incursions into the Ethiopian empire.

Ethiopia was in need of a strong emperor and found one in Emperor Fasiledes who took over from his father Susenyos in 1632 and, in 1636, founded his new capital in Gondar near Lake Tana. The city of Gondar was the first permanent capital and was to flourish until the early 19th century.

Emperor Fasiledes was to bring a period of stability to Ethiopia and Gondar was to become a sophisticated and artistic city with its central Royal Enclosure of magnificent castles started by Fasiledes and continued by ensuing monarchs.

19^th Century

In 1855, an unusual character who had once lived as a bandit had himself crowned as Emperor Tewodros and set out to unify his large and disparate country. He showed himself to be a very capable and creative monarch and he chose the mountain of Maqdala as his royal base.

He planned a system of roads across the country, encouraged land reform, established a national army and promoted Amharic as his country’s lingua franca. He was a reforming monarch who took great pride in his country, his people and in himself.

He sought British and other European support for his reforms and, when this was not forthcoming, he imprisoned two British ambassadors who were at his court at that time.

When Queen Victoria learned of this, she sent Sir Robert Napier with an army of soldiers, elephants and camels to achieve a rescue. Tewodros’s reforming zeal had made him unpopular with local chieftains and they supported Napier’s contingent and swelled its numbers.

As Napier and his men approached the summit of Maqdala in 1868, Tewodros, still refusing to submit, shot himself in the mouth. Maqdala was razed to the ground and the British troops returned triumphantly to England taking with them many hundreds of royal artefacts and manuscripts.

20^th Century

The 20th century was to be a period of great positive development as well as great trauma and anguish for Ethiopia.

In the late 1800s, there were to be threats and incursions from both the Italians (with a great and memorable victory for the Ethiopians over the Italian troops at Adwa in 1896) and the Dervishes from the Sudan (with another Ethiopian victory in 1889).

It was to be Emperor Menelik II who was to take Ethiopia into the modern world of the 20th century. He chose the site for his new capital of Addis Ababa – his ‘New Flower’ – and set to creating a modern country with electricity, telephones, schools, hospitals and a railway.

In world terms, it was to be Emperor Haile Selassie, crowned in 1930, who was to make Ethiopia a known world power.

He held his country together as a nation through the Italian occupation from 1936 to 1941, made good relations with European monarchs and statesmen, and spoke up boldly for his people in the League of Nations.

He survived as monarch until 1974 when he was overthrown and murdered by the Derg, the Communist regime under the military colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam, and Ethiopia was plunged into a stagnating 17 years of oppressive and repressive dictatorship.

The great famines of 1972-4 and 1984-5 were to bring the country to its knees and to bring it also to the concern of the entire world thanks to resounding media coverage.

In 1991, Mengistu was at last driven out of the country, the Communist regime fell and the long journey towards democracy was started. After a period of transitional government under Meles Zenawi, the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was proclaimed in 1995 and elections were held with Meles Zenawi being re-elected to leadership. This progress continues strongly today.

The three-year border dispute with Eritrea that erupted in 1998 did little to help the economic stability of either country but, with the help of UN peace-keeping forces, this problem seems to be resolving itself and Ethiopia looks forward to a period of strong economic development and growth.

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