Just as you give your house a good spring cleaning to freshen it up after a long winter, you can take a similar approach to getting your garden in shape for the warmer months. Tackle all your outdoor tasks like a pro with this spring gardening checklist. It’s divided into early, middle, and late spring tasks to help you pace yourself as you get your flowerbeds, trees, shrubs, and other garden areas ready for the growing season. That way, you’ll be sure to hit each area of your landscape before summer arrives.

Early Spring

Though the official first day of spring is in March, gardeners often go by the weather to decide that spring has started. Think of early spring as the time when temperatures begin trending upward and stay consistently above freezing if you live in a cold climate. In temperate regions, most plants are just about to break dormancy but haven’t started actively growing yet.

1. Clean up flowerbeds.

Clear away dead leaves or any other winter debris from the soil surfaces where you’re planning to plant annual flowers and vegetables. Remove protective winter mulch from around perennials and ornamental grasses (hedge trimmers make it easy to give grass clumps a clean, even look), and cut back last year’s dried foliage. To protect yourself from cuts and scrapes, remember to wear gardening gloves, especially when working with plants with prickly leaves.

2. Divide your perennials.

A good time to divide many perennials is just before spring growth begins. Dividing perennials is a budget-friendly way to add more plants to your garden, or to share extras with friends. It also aids in keeping your existing perennials healthy. After a few years, if your plants grow in a large clump, the middle can thin out, leaving a bare spot. Dividing the clump will encourage new growth.

3. Add mulch around perennials.

One of the easiest ways to make your yard look polished is to add a fresh layer of mulch around the garden beds. This also helps the soil retain moisture and keeps down weeds. It often takes more mulch than you imagine to cover a bed, so it’s a good idea to buy a little more than you think you’ll need. Spread the mulch evenly with your gloved hands or use a rake, being careful not to layer it on too thickly or too close to your plants, which can cause diseases. Keeping the mulch level also helps it stay in place during heavy rains or wind. If you have downspouts that tend to wash away mulch, one fix is to replace it with river rocks.

4. Prune trees and shrubs.

If you didn’t prune in winter, now is the time to trim your fruit trees. Prune before the buds begin to break into bloom, or you’ll stress the tree and get a tiny crop (or possibly none). It’s also a good time to prune evergreen trees and shrubs.

5. Perform basic maintenance on your hardscaping.

Check stonework for frost heaves, particularly in paths and edging. Check the general condition of your deck or patio and make any needed repairs. Clean off outdoor furniture so it’s ready when you are for relaxing after a busy day in the garden.

6. Plant vegetables.

Hardy, cool-season vegetables, like potatoes, artichokes, peas, and some lettuces, germinate best in cool soil, so plant them in early spring, once the soil has thawed. They should be ready to harvest by early summer.

Mid Spring

Halfway through the season, you should start to see your spring landscape take shape, as more and more bulbs, perennials, shrubs, and trees start growing, possibly even blooming. With most of the cleanup completed, you can get started adding new plants.

1. Clean bird feeders.

Some people like to take down their bird feeders in spring and store them away until fall. If you want to leave them up year-round, now’s a good time to empty and wash them out. Then fill your feeders with fresh seed.

2. Make notes as you watch the spring show.

Some of your spring bulbs should be starting to flower. Enjoy the blooms, and take note of any empty spots where you’ll want to plant bulbs later in the fall.

3. Plant new perennials and cold-hardy annuals.

Freshly planted perennials need a little time to get settled and grow new roots before hot summer weather hits. For some quick garden color, add a few cool-season annuals, like pansies or snapdragons. They also work well in containers, where they’ll brighten your front porch.

4. Add new trees and shrubs.

Plant as soon as the ground is no longer frozen. The earlier you can do this, the better, so your trees and shrubs have enough time to grow new roots before temperatures start getting hot.

5. Apply fresh mulch.

Once you’re finished planting, add a fresh layer of mulch around all your new plants. If you mulch now, before weeds have a chance to sprout, you’ll have next-to-no weeding come summer.

Late Spring

In late spring, you can start cleaning up flowers that have already bloomed. It’s also time to get planting in earnest to fill out your garden.

1. Deadhead flowering bulbs.

Remove spent blossoms from spring-flowering bulbs; this encourages the plants to store energy for next year rather than expend it to make seeds. Let the foliage die back on its own, and don’t remove it until it’s completely yellow or dried up.

2. Shop for summer annuals.

Pick out flats of your favorite summer annuals, like petunias, impatiens, and zinnias. Choose plants that aren’t yet in bloom, because they’ll be stronger.

3. Start warm-season vegetables.

While you’re harvesting the radishes and lettuces you sowed early in the spring, you can transplant seedlings of warm-season crops, like tomatoes, peppers, and all sorts of herbs.

4. Plant summer-blooming bulbs.

While spring-blooming bulbs should be planted in the fall, summer-blooming bulbs, like dahlias and gladiolus, should be planted once there’s no more threat of frost. Check your area’s average last frost date for a general idea of when to plant these bulbs, then get them in the ground once the soil has warmed up.

Use this spring gardening checklist, and you’ll have one of the best-looking yards on the block. While there are still a few maintenance chores you should do every season, once you power through these spring tasks early in the growing season, you’ll have more time to kick back and enjoy your landscape throughout summer.

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In business, a crisis lurking right around the corner could hit without warning at any time. Because such events are, by definition, unexpected—often impossible to imagine, much less predict—leaders need to develop solid strategies for quickly responding to any crisis that might arise to ensure that their businesses can survive and continue to thrive. 

Crises can come in so many different forms that creating a comprehensive plan to deal with every issue you might encounter isn’t a viable option. Fortunately, smart leaders understand how to build a flexible crisis management strategy that can be adapted to meet the needs of swiftly evolving situations.

Here are a few steps you can take to design and implement an effective crisis management strategy for your company.

1. Learn Resilience And Accept Vulnerability

To overcome a crisis, leaders need to be agile and learn resilience. This includes making difficult decisions with limited information and being prepared to lead through the outcomes that arise based on these quick decisions. Gaining the confidence to lead your organization and team will be imperative. Embracing vulnerability is also essential, as you must recognize that not all decisions will lead to the desired outcome.

2. Practice A ‘What Would Happen If…’ Exercise

Preparation is key. When I was in a former airline role, our crisis management strategy was to not only document our plans, but also prepare for crisis or disaster by practicing a “what would happen if…” exercise. For a business, that may mean ensuring a pipeline for succession, acknowledging that, as important as process is, people matter even more. During a crisis, act quickly, reassure the team and do what is right, even if it’s not easy.

3. Change According To The Times And Your People

Business leaders need to acknowledge that crisis management affects everyone in the company. When developing a strategy, it is important to understand the times you are in and the people you serve. The strategy cannot be based on a situation that occurred 20 years ago because business personalities and the makeup of companies have changed, and so should the approach.

4. Form A Crisis Management Team

Form a crisis management team made up of stakeholders from various departments, product lines and locations. Include someone gifted in communications, an IT leader, someone representing your talent and someone close to your clients. Gather that group to brainstorm a list of potential crises you may face. Then, prioritize those to identify the most likely crises this group should plan for first.

5. Identify Your Key Risks

The primary step toward developing a solid crisis management strategy is determining where you are at risk. In today’s environment, the way we conduct business has introduced a far greater field of risk, but it’s also brought more options. If you know your key risks, you can create a solid strategy that will keep you in business and out of long-term recovery.

6. Prioritize A ‘Crisis Focus’ With The Team

Meet with your team to create a “crisis focus.” Leaders typically juggle too much, and a crisis sucks up attention and resources. This causes balls to drop. Decide what your priority needs to be throughout the crisis. Keep it in line with your long-term vision and values. Identify what balls you will drop or set down and how. Clarify the steps needed to accomplish your priority objectives.

7. Forget Traditional Hierarchical Barriers

Rip up the organizational chart and remove traditional hierarchical barriers. Pull in the leaders with the knowledge, experience and passion for the work that needs to be done, regardless of their titles or roles. Then, create a flexible strategy that empowers everyone to do what needs to be done to address the crisis.

8. Outsource The Development Of A Framework

Outsource the creation of a crisis management framework to experts in the field. This is not your company’s core competency. Invest in a framework and a plan, and then get your organization’s input. Your teams can provide more detail, identify more potential crises, and help ensure that the plan will meet all stakeholders’ needs. Finally, task an internal team with rolling the plan out to all levels of personnel in the company. Be sure to update the plan annually.

9. Plan On Adjusting To Many Unknowns 

A solid crisis management plan needs to cover many dimensions. Ensure that you are evaluating critical infrastructure needs, process impacts and people impacts. Recognize that you cannot plan for everything. A good plan includes monitoring how the crisis itself shifts, and then replanning as details are uncovered. It’s not just about the actions you’ll take, but also how you plan to adjust to myriad unknowns.

10. Document Processes And Do Drills

Asking tough questions to see what is on the other side of the mountain is essential. Ask yourself about every possible pitfall, problem and detour that can (and will) happen, and then plan for them. Document workflows and processes, role play and do spontaneous drills involving a variety of team members who will take on different lead roles in the crisis to boost their problem-solving momentum and critical thinking.

11. Work Backward On A Plan To Fail

Define everything you need to fail. Then, determine with your people what’s needed to avoid those things that would lead you to fail and work backward. Then, move forward into actions to avoid failure. Watch how your people’s creativity helps your efforts soar to success. Then, watch how your team comes together as a result!

12. Share A Communication Plan With All Teams

Creating a solid communication plan that clearly identifies the team members involved and their roles is one of the most important steps to take in crisis management. This plan should be integrated into an overall contingency plan, and it should be shared with all team members. The desired outcome happens so much faster when you focus on finding effective solutions.

13. Take Responsibility For Any Crisis

Take responsibility for any crisis that is happening, could happen or might happen. Procrastination and neglect will be costly. Developing a crisis management strategy involves research to inform preparations, leadership and team building to ensure responsiveness and resiliency, and systems and processes to implement the strategy and maximize talents.

14. Stress-Test Your Strategy Regularly

A solid crisis management strategy should be stress-tested at least once a year. Have organizational leaders and/or a crisis team review the strategy by conducting a “fire drill” to spot any gaps in the plan. Also, ensure that all new employees, managers and leaders are trained on the key components of the crisis management plan you put in place. They should understand what their roles will be in the case of a business disruption.

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1. The Military Will Prep for an Arctic Incursion

Canada’s military is finally treating the Arctic like the wild frontier it is: strategically positioned, resource-rich and increasingly crowded. China is coveting the North’s vast deposits of copper, nickel, lithium and cobalt, while melting sea ice is opening new shipping lanes through the Northwest Passage, giving Chinese submarines and research vessels (a.k.a. spy ships) new routes through Canadian waters. (Russia, too, is known to deploy “ghost” ships to snoop.) Canada is gearing up with new helicopters, rapid-response navy capabilities and a joint project with Australia to build a next-gen Arctic radar system.

2. While Carney Will Invest Billions in Defense

If the last year has taught us anything, it’s that our relationship with our southern neighbor is nowhere near as friendly as we thought it was. Our false sense of security has put us way behind on our NATO-prescribed military spending. In June, Mark Carney, alongside all other NATO nations, pledged to devote at least five per cent of the national GDP to defense by 2035—and his first federal budget is a strong start, boosting military spending by $84 billion over five years, the largest line item outside of infrastructure and productivity investments. On the shopping list: new armored vehicles, drone-tech improvements and cyber defense infrastructure, along with funds for recruiting personnel and expanding Canada’s defense industry.

3. Nation-Building Will Commence

First up in Carney’s sovereignty project is a massive effort to create new infrastructure and diversify trade. Created under the Building Canada Act, the Major Projects Office will cut red tape, align regulators and coordinate some $116 billion worth of investment. In September, it announced its first slate of priority projects: doubling LNG production in Kitimat, B.C., building a small modular nuclear reactor in Darlington, Ontario, expanding Montreal’s container terminal in Contrecœur, and boosting copper output at McIlvenna Bay in Saskatchewan and Red Chris in B.C. Two months later, it added more mining, LNG and hydro projects to the mix.

4. Political Deepfakes Will Hit Your Feed

In the past year, AI-powered deepfake videos have erroneously depicted Mark Carney sharing investment tips and Justin Trudeau having affairs with members of his cabinet, all with chilling realism. Manitoba has already moved to legislate against them: its new election-misinformation bill would ban the use of altered audio or video designed to influence voters, with penalties of up to $20,000 per day for non-compliance. Beyond that, analysts warn Canada’s patchwork response is too slow, and that without a coordinated national strategy, future elections could be flooded with lies.

5. Alberta Will Ponder Secession

Last year, renegade Alberta Premier Danielle Smith lowered the threshold of signatures required to trigger a referendum on secession from 20 per cent of registered voters down to 10 per cent; around the same time, polls showed that 36 per cent of Albertans supported separation. A group called the Alberta Prosperity Project has hungrily taken up the Wexit cause, while a rival organization called Forever Canadian has already collected more than 450,000 signatures in favor of staying put.

6. The Notwithstanding Clause Will Get Its Day in Court

Section 33 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms—a.k.a. the notwithstanding clause—has become a golden ticket for Canadian premiers, who have the power to invoke it whenever they want to pass laws that infringe on Charter rights. In 2026, the Supreme Court will hear two appeals protesting its use: one against the government of Saskatchewan, which is trying to ban students from changing pronouns without parental consent, and one against Quebec, which is seeking to bar public servants from wearing religious symbols. Both cases will test where Charter rights end and provincial powers begin.

7. Alberta Will Put Citizenship on Display

Starting in late 2026, Alberta will become the first Canadian province to add citizenship markers to driver’s licenses and provincial ID cards—a move Premier Danielle Smith bills as a win for convenience and security. Albertans, she argues, won’t need to juggle passports or paperwork to prove they’re Canadian, and the province says the change will streamline services and cut red tape. But tucked inside the policy is a political edge: Smith says the new marker will help safeguard elections by making it easier to verify who is eligible to vote. Critics warn it could create a visible divide between citizens and non-citizens and turn everyday identification into a proxy for immigration status.

8. Japan Will Become Our Next Big Trading Partner

Japan has almost completely cut off Russian oil and coal imports, and it’s eyeing Canada as a reliable, democratic replacement. It also wants more Canadian LNG—Mitsubishi already owns 15 per cent of LNG Canada, which began shipping to Asia in June—and is hungry for critical minerals to feed its EV battery factories. Hitachi, meanwhile, is helping Canada build its first small modular reactor. As Carney pushes to reduce Canada’s dependence on the U.S., a Pacific partnership suddenly seems inevitable.

9. The Feds Will Try to Clear the Immigration Backlog

The government may have slashed its immigration targets, but the pipeline is as full as ever: there are currently 2.2 million applications and more than 900,000 overdue. To speed things up, the feds are leaning on tech that lets officers rifle through up to a thousand cases at once, though they insist humans still make the final call. The result? Refusal letters that read like they were spat out by a bot. Lawyers have reported cases being denied due to missing documents that were in fact submitted, as well as financially secure applicants being rejected for supposedly having insufficient funds. In response, applicants will be clogging the federal court system with challenges.

10. Carney and Ford Will Face Off

Ontario Premier Doug Ford has made his name as an outspoken Trump critic, blasting his tariffs as “unjustified, unfair and frankly illegal,” threatening to cut electricity exports and calling out what he sees as trade bullying. Meanwhile, the PM is focused on calm diplomacy: quietly negotiating border agreements, coordinating with provinces on energy security and smoothing tensions over North American supply chains. Ford’s high‑octane public rebukes risk undermining Carney’s careful back-channel maneuvers. Expect fireworks as Canada balances principle and pragmatism, with each approach appealing to different voters. As for which one works better on Trump? We’re still not sure.

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In the spirit of Halloween we are asking the question, are ghosts real? For centuries people from every corner of the world have answered that question with stories, rituals, and sometimes fear. Today we’ll look at what different cultures say, what science explains, and why belief in spirits remains so widespread.

In Japan, ghost stories center on the yūrei — spirits of the dead who return when funeral rites are incomplete or when they have unfinished business. Yūrei appear in classical theatre and art as pale, long-haired figures dressed in white, and occupy a clear place in Japanese rituals like Obon.

In Latin America one of the most famous spirits is La Llorona, the weeping woman who mourns the children she lost and is said to haunt rivers and canals — a tale used across generations to scare children away from danger and to explain tragic loss. This legend has countless local versions across Mexico and the Hispanic world.

Across much of the Muslim world the idea of invisible beings called jinn has long explained misfortune, possession, and strange phenomena — creatures mentioned in scripture and folklore that can be benevolent or dangerous, depending on tradition. For many believers, encounters with jinn are the culturally appropriate way to describe ghost-like experiences.

Science doesn’t find evidence for spirits that survive death, but it does offer explanations for many ghost experiences. One of the most well documented is sleep paralysis — a temporary state between sleep and wakefulness where the body stays immobile while the mind is conscious, often producing vivid, terrifying hallucinations of intruders, pressure on the chest, or figures in the room. Cross-cultural studies show these episodes are often interpreted as ghosts, demons, or jinn depending on local beliefs.

Other explanations include illusions caused by low-frequency electromagnetic fields, carbon monoxide poisoning, or the brain’s pattern-matching trying to make sense of vague stimuli — all of which can create the sense of a presence without any supernatural agent.

Belief in ghosts also fulfills social and psychological roles. Ghost stories comfort by giving meaning to loss, enforce cultural norms, and create collective cautionary tales. In times of stress, grief, or uncertainty people are more likely to interpret ambiguous events as supernatural. Surveys show belief is common: around four in ten adults in some countries say they believe in ghosts, and belief levels vary widely by nation and culture.

History shows organized movements around ghosts too — Victorian spiritualism, for example, turned séance-going and mediumship into a social phenomenon in the 19th century, blending grief, science, and entertainment.

Across the globe there are famous haunted places and repeatable reports: unexplained sounds in old houses, cold spots, and objects that seem to move. Investigators sometimes document odd audio, video artifacts, or electromagnetic spikes — but these findings rarely stand up to controlled testing. In contrast, many haunting claims are later linked to environmental causes, pranksters, or psychological suggestion. Sleep-paralysis and mass social priming can also turn a rumor into a local ‘epidemic’ of sightings.

So, are ghosts real? The short answer: not in the scientific sense as disembodied minds proven to persist after death — but ghost experiences are very real to the people who have them. Culture, brain states, environment, and social meaning all shape how we interpret those experiences. Whether you call them spirits, jinn, yūrei, or hallucinations, they tell us something powerful about how humans process loss, danger, and mystery.

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Freedom of Speech

Freedom of speech—the right to express opinions without government restraint—is a democratic ideal that dates back to ancient Greece. In the United States, the First Amendment guarantees free speech, though the United States, like all modern democracies, places limits on this freedom. In a series of landmark cases, the U.S. Supreme Court over the years has helped to define what types of speech are—and aren’t—protected under U.S. law.

The ancient Greeks pioneered freedom of expression as a democratic principle. The ancient Greek word “parrhesia” means “free speech,” or “to speak candidly.” The term first appeared in Greek literature around the end of the fifth century B.C.

During the classical period, parrhesia became a fundamental part of the democracy of Athens. Leaders, philosophers, playwrights and everyday Athenians were free to openly discuss politics and religion and to criticize the government in some settings.

First Amendment

In the United States, the First Amendment protects freedom of speech.

The First Amendment was adopted on December 15, 1791 as part of the Bill of Rights—the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. The Bill of Rights provides constitutional protection for certain individual liberties, including freedoms of speech, assembly and worship.

The First Amendment doesn’t specify what exactly is meant by freedom of speech. Defining what types of speech should and shouldn’t be protected by law has fallen largely to the courts.

In general, the First Amendment guarantees the right to express ideas and information. On a basic level, it means that people can express an opinion (even an unpopular or unsavory one) without fear of government censorship.

It protects all forms of communication, from speeches to art and other media.

Flag Burning

While freedom of speech pertains mostly to the spoken or written word, it also protects some forms of symbolic speech. Symbolic speech is an action that expresses an idea.

Flag burning is an example of symbolic speech that is protected under the First Amendment. Gregory Lee Johnson, a youth communist, burned a flag during the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas to protest the Reagan administration.

The U.S. Supreme Court, in 1990, reversed a Texas court’s conviction that Johnson broke the law by desecrating the flag. Texas v. Johnson invalidated statutes in Texas and 47 other states prohibiting flag burning.

When Isn’t Speech Protected?

Not all speech is protected under the First Amendment.

Forms of speech that aren’t protected include:

• Obscene material such as child pornography
• Plagiarism of copyrighted material
• Defamation (libel and slander)
• True threats

Speech inciting illegal actions or soliciting others to commit crimes aren’t protected under the First Amendment, either.

The Supreme Court decided a series of cases in 1919 that helped to define the limitations of free speech. Congress passed the Espionage Act of 1917, shortly after the United States entered into World War I. The law prohibited interference in military operations or recruitment.

Socialist Party activist Charles Schenck was arrested under the Espionage Act after he distributed fliers urging young men to dodge the draft. The Supreme Court upheld his conviction by creating the “clear and present danger” standard, explaining when the government is allowed to limit free speech. In this case, they viewed draft resistant as dangerous to national security.

American labor leader and Socialist Party activist Eugene Debs also was arrested under the Espionage Act after giving a speech in 1918 encouraging others not to join the military. Debs argued that he was exercising his right to free speech and that the Espionage Act of 1917 was unconstitutional. In Debs v. United States the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act.

Freedom of Expression

The Supreme Court has interpreted artistic freedom broadly as a form of free speech.

In most cases, freedom of expression may be restricted only if it will cause direct and imminent harm. Shouting “fire!” in a crowded theater and causing a stampede would be an example of direct and imminent harm.

In deciding cases involving artistic freedom of expression the Supreme Court leans on a principle called “content neutrality.” Content neutrality means the government can’t censor or restrict expression just because some segment of the population finds the content offensive.

Free Speech in Schools

In 1965, students at a public high school in Des Moines, Iowa, organized a silent protest against the Vietnam War by wearing black armbands to protest the fighting. The students were suspended from school. The principal argued that the armbands were a distraction and could possibly lead to danger for the students.

The Supreme Court didn’t bite—they ruled in favor of the students’ right to wear the armbands as a form of free speech in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District. The case set the standard for free speech in schools. However, First Amendment rights typically don’t apply in private schools.

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It is fun to look at a globe and wonder what it would be like to retire abroad. This might become a more common practice as one nears retirement age. After all, a small nest egg has the potential to go further and last longer in countries other than America. 

That’s why so many nearing retirement consider and study the subject, taking into account factors such as cost of living and other potential amenities (or lack thereof). Then there are those who actually dare to live the dream and walk that happy international plank. 

What might you expect from such a big move? So much depends on what you’re looking for. Many prefer a more tropical environment while other retirees put a stronger focus on an affordable healthcare system. Here are the top 7 countries to retire abroad in 2025.

Spain/Portugal

Portugal is a near-consensus first choice for many exploring this topic. Ex patriots note that Portugal is well known for its modest cost of living. The country also boasts a number of friendly tax policies with retired Americans in mind. Ex-pats also embrace the high-quality healthcare system that Portugal is known for. Combine these factors with an active lifestyle and the country’s breathtaking beach settings and it’s easy to see why Portugal is a big hit with Americans who retire abroad. 

So, what’s up with Portugal’s Iberian neighbor? What makes Spain one of the best countries to retire abroad? Like Portugal, Spain offers a Mediterranean climate that must be experienced to be believed. Spanish culture also values and genuinely respects its elders. Its citizens enjoy a vibrant lifestyle and excellent healthcare. Some retired Americans note that its “slower pace of life” might be a bit of a culture shock for those who are or were used to the hustle and bustle of state-side life but for most, that’s exactly the point of retirement. 

Switzerland

If you’re ok with trading in beautiful Mediterranean beaches for amazing mountain-side vistas, then Switzerland might be the choice for you. Why is Switzerland considered one of the best countries to retire abroad? 

Switzerland consistently ranks near the top of the list when it comes to quality of life. Breathing in all that fresh mountain air is likely one of the contributing factors to this ranking. However, one should also consider Switzerland’s robust healthcare system and its incredibly friendly culture. This is reflected in its low crime rate and politically stable government. Switzerland’s central location in Europe also makes it a great home base for travelling around the continent. 

Costa Rica

Let’s get tropical. Ex patriots love Costa Rica and for many obvious reasons. To start with, most associate Costa Rica with that of a lush, tropical paradise and they aren’t wrong. 

Costa Rica is very affordable and features a universal healthcare system. If you’re up for exploring key features and locations of Central America, you might also appreciate Costa Rica’s immediate proximity to Panama and Nicaragua. If an affordable, laid-back beachside paradise is what you’re looking for then Costa Rica should be high on your retirement checklist.

Panama

It’s no secret among ex-pats moving to Central America. Panama is renowned for its “retirement visa” which comes with a number of impressive benefits and discounts. The ease of entry into this tropical wonderland is a big selling point. 

Like its many beautiful neighbors, Panama also features a low cost of living and a thriving ex-pat community. Panama also celebrates a very low crime rate and is considered to be one of the safest countries in Central America. Yes, there can be language barriers but all you need to do is find other patches of relocated Americans and you will feel at home in no time. You can also try your hand at the native tongue. 

Mexico

While in the neighborhood, you might be pleased to note that our neighbor to the south also ranks well when Americans choose to retire abroad. To start with, its immediate proximity to home doesn’t hurt. While some might suggest that crime can be an issue in certain parts of the country, ex-pats often cite Mexico’s vibrant culture and affordable living conditions as ideal reasons for making the move. 

Mexico also puts a strong focus on helping retirees achieve permanent residency. Many retirees and ex-pats will tell you that when you retire abroad rotating or routinely expiring visas can be a slight hassle. Mexico is keenly aware of the issue and makes an effort to help and accept those who choose to seek a permanent home there.

Thailand

This tropical Asian paradise boasts a very low cost of living. Your retirement money will go a long way in Thailand. Also, if you are looking to escape cold winters and harsh rotating seasons, then you might be pleased to note that Thailand is loved for its often clear weather and year-long warm climate. 

As a result, Thailand boasts a strong ex-pat community. Other American retirees love the excellent healthcare system and the relaxed citizenry that embraces its diverse culture.

Malta

Returning to Europe, Malta is a gem for those who choose to retire abroad. If you’re looking for a quiet coastal lifestyle then get thee to Malta. The healthcare system in Malta is highly regarded and features both a public and private system. Ex-pats also love Malta for its low cost of living and 300 plus days of sun every year. As a result, the island boasts a large and growing ex-pat community which provides ample opportunities to network and socialize.

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In the modern world, few inventions have had such a profound impact on global security, politics, and human history as the nuclear weapon. Since its first detonation during World War II, nuclear weapons have remained a subject of intense debate, fear, and fascination. They are symbols of the immense power and potential for destruction contained within the atom. Yet, their existence raises important questions about how nations interact, how power is measured, and how the future of humanity can be shaped in an era where nuclear warfare remains a real possibility.

At their core, nuclear weapons are devices designed to release an enormous amount of energy through nuclear reactions, either by splitting atoms (fission) or combining them (fusion). This energy is capable of destroying entire cities in a single flash, instantly vaporizing people, buildings, and infrastructure. But nuclear weapons are not just physical objects; they are symbols of geopolitics, deterrence, and the delicate balance of peace and war in the modern world.

The Science Behind Nuclear Weapons

To understand the immense power of nuclear weapons, one must first understand the science behind them. At the heart of a nuclear weapon is the concept of energy release through nuclear reactions. The two most commonly used reactions in nuclear weapons are nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

Nuclear Fission: Splitting the Atom

Nuclear fission is the process that powers atomic bombs. In this reaction, the nucleus of a heavy atom, typically uranium-235 or plutonium-239, is split into two smaller nuclei, along with several neutrons and a significant amount of energy. This energy is released in the form of an explosive burst. When one atom undergoes fission, it releases neutrons that can trigger fission in nearby atoms, causing a chain reaction. If the material is in a sufficient quantity and properly arranged, this chain reaction becomes uncontrollable, leading to a massive release of energy.

The first atomic bombs, like those dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, used uranium-235 and plutonium-239 for fission. The precise arrangement and mass of these materials are critical to ensure the reaction is rapid and efficient, maximizing the explosion’s energy output.

Nuclear Fusion: Combining Atoms

Nuclear fusion, on the other hand, is the process that powers hydrogen bombs, which are significantly more powerful than fission bombs. In fusion, light atomic nuclei, typically isotopes of hydrogen like deuterium and tritium, combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a tremendous amount of energy in the process. This is the same reaction that powers the sun. Fusion bombs, also known as thermonuclear weapons, use a fission bomb as a trigger to provide the extremely high temperatures and pressures necessary for fusion to occur.

Fusion weapons are much more powerful than fission bombs and can produce explosions with yields many times greater than those of traditional atomic bombs. The scale of destruction from a thermonuclear bomb can wipe out entire regions, causing immense loss of life and environmental damage.

The History of Nuclear Weapons

The history of nuclear weapons is deeply intertwined with the 20th century’s major geopolitical events, particularly World War II and the Cold War. Understanding this history is crucial for comprehending how nuclear weapons became a central element of global military strategy and international relations.

The Manhattan Project: Birth of the Atomic Bomb

The journey towards the development of nuclear weapons began in the 1930s, when scientists first discovered that the atom could be split to release energy. In 1938, German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann made the groundbreaking discovery of nuclear fission, and soon thereafter, physicists realized that this reaction could be used to release immense amounts of energy. It didn’t take long for military leaders around the world to see the potential of nuclear technology as a new form of warfare.

The U.S. government, concerned that Nazi Germany might be developing nuclear weapons, initiated the Manhattan Project in 1942. Under the leadership of physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the project brought together some of the brightest scientific minds of the time to design the world’s first nuclear bomb. The project culminated in the Trinity test in July 1945, where the first atomic bomb was detonated in the New Mexico desert. This marked a new era in warfare.

The Atomic Age Begins: Hiroshima and Nagasaki

Just a few weeks after the Trinity test, the U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Japan—one on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and another on Nagasaki on August 9. These bombings marked the first and only use of nuclear weapons in warfare to date. The devastation caused by these bombs was unparalleled. In an instant, tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more would die later from radiation sickness, injuries, and long-term health effects.

The bombings played a significant role in Japan’s surrender and the end of World War II. However, they also sparked an intense moral and philosophical debate about the use of such destructive weapons. The world had entered the atomic age, and humanity was now faced with the realization that such power could be used to destroy entire civilizations.

The Cold War and the Arms Race

In the years following World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union entered a period of intense geopolitical rivalry known as the Cold War. Both superpowers sought to expand their influence worldwide, and this competition extended to the development of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb in 1949, starting an arms race that would last for decades.

The Cold War era saw the development of ever-more powerful nuclear weapons. The U.S. tested the first hydrogen bomb in 1952, followed by the Soviet Union in 1953. These weapons, capable of enormous destruction, fundamentally altered the nature of warfare and international relations. Both sides developed vast arsenals of nuclear weapons, and the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) emerged, where both the U.S. and the USSR understood that any nuclear exchange would lead to the annihilation of both nations.

The Non-Proliferation Treaty and Global Efforts

As the nuclear arms race escalated, the international community grew increasingly concerned about the spread of nuclear weapons. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), signed in 1968, aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons while promoting peaceful uses of nuclear energy. The treaty established a framework for nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation, with the goal of limiting the number of countries that could develop nuclear weapons.

While the NPT succeeded in limiting the number of nuclear-armed nations, it also created divisions, as several countries—including India, Pakistan, and Israel—pursued their own nuclear weapons programs outside the treaty framework. In the decades that followed, efforts to reduce global nuclear arsenals through arms control agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), sought to curb the growth of nuclear weapons.

The Impact of Nuclear Weapons

The power of nuclear weapons is staggering, but their effects extend far beyond the immediate destruction caused by a blast. The long-term consequences of a nuclear detonation are felt in various ways: environmental damage, health consequences, geopolitical ramifications, and the psychological trauma experienced by survivors.

Immediate Effects: Devastation on a Global Scale

The immediate effects of a nuclear explosion are catastrophic. The bomb detonates with a flash of intense light, followed by an explosion that sends shockwaves across the landscape. Buildings are flattened, fires ignite, and anyone within the blast radius is either vaporized or severely injured. The force of the blast can cause extreme destruction miles from the epicenter, while the thermal radiation causes third-degree burns and ignites fires across vast areas.

In addition to the blast and thermal effects, a nuclear explosion also releases intense ionizing radiation. This radiation can cause acute radiation sickness, with symptoms ranging from nausea and vomiting to organ failure and death. Radiation exposure also increases the risk of cancer and genetic mutations in the long term.

Fallout and the Aftermath

One of the most enduring dangers of nuclear weapons is the fallout, or radioactive particles that are carried by wind currents after an explosion. Fallout can contaminate large areas, poisoning water supplies, soil, and air. The effects of fallout can last for decades, causing long-term health issues, environmental degradation, and economic disruption.

The cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which were bombed in 1945, remain a stark reminder of the long-term effects of nuclear warfare. Survivors, known as Hibakusha, endured physical and emotional scars that lasted for their entire lives. In addition to the immediate health consequences, they suffered from discrimination and social stigma, as the effects of radiation were often misunderstood.

Psychological Impact: A World Living in Fear

Perhaps one of the most insidious effects of nuclear weapons is their psychological impact. The constant threat of nuclear war during the Cold War created a climate of fear and anxiety that permeated everyday life. People lived under the shadow of mutually assured destruction, never knowing if a single miscalculation could lead to the end of civilization.

In the modern world, while the direct threat of nuclear war may have diminished, the psychological toll remains. The mere existence of nuclear weapons creates an atmosphere of instability, as countries continue to build and stockpile these weapons, and the fear of nuclear terrorism or accidents looms large.

The Future of Nuclear Weapons

As the world moves forward, the future of nuclear weapons remains uncertain. While the Cold War is over, the threat of nuclear proliferation has not disappeared. Several countries that do not possess nuclear weapons have expressed interest in developing them, and the risk of nuclear weapons falling into the hands of non-state actors or terrorists remains a major concern.

Efforts to reduce and eliminate nuclear weapons continue, with many advocating for a world free of nuclear weapons. However, achieving this goal will require significant diplomatic, technological, and political efforts. The challenges are immense, but the potential for a safer, more peaceful world is worth striving for.

The future of nuclear weapons is intricately linked to global security and the decisions made by world leaders. The pursuit of disarmament, non-proliferation, and responsible stewardship of nuclear technology will determine whether humanity continues to live in the shadow of the bomb or whether we move toward a world where nuclear weapons are relegated to history’s dark past.

Conclusion

Nuclear weapons are among the most powerful and destructive forces ever created by humankind. They represent the incredible potential of science and technology, but also the darker side of human ambition. From their inception in the Manhattan Project to their role in the Cold War and their continued existence today, nuclear weapons have left an indelible mark on the course of history.

The question of whether humanity can coexist with these weapons or whether we will eventually move toward a world free from nuclear arms is still unresolved. What is certain is that the story of nuclear weapons is far from over, and their impact—both physical and psychological—will continue to shape the future of our planet for generations to come.

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From the US assassination of Iranian commander Qasem Soleimani to the ongoing case of the jailed mother Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe, Iran has scarcely been out of the headlines in recent months. But how far back does the history of Iran stretch? Here, Professor Ali M Ansari from the University of St Andrews charts the country’s historical lineage, the emergence of Islam and Shiism, and Iran’s attempts to reconcile its traditions with the modern world.

Iran enjoys one of the richest historical lineages of any modern state stretching back several thousand years. This history can be broadly divided into three epochs: the pre-Islamic ancient period (c559 BC to 651 AD); the Islamic era (651 AD to 1800 AD); and the modern era, defined by its encounter with Western modernity from around 1800.

The pre-Islamic ancient period

‘Iranian’ history proper begins with the migration of the Iranian tribes from Central Asia onto what is now known as the Iranian plateau in the 2nd millennium BC. But organised human settlement developed much earlier and Elamite civilisation in south western Iran – southern Iraq today – emerged in the third millennium. By the 1st millennium BC, two distinct Iranian states emerged in the form of the Medes and Persians and their emphatic entrance onto the world stage began with the accession of Cyrus II in 559 BC.

The Achaemenid Persian Empire grew to become the largest contiguous land empire then known to man, impressing both friend and foe alike with its relatively benign administration drawing on religious ideas that would later be associated with Zoroastrianism, the pre-Islamic religion of Iran identified with the mantra “good words, good thoughts and good deeds”. It looms large in the Western imagination because of its failed attempts to conquer the Greek states and its subsequent defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great some 150 years later in the 330s BC. Hellenized rule under Alexander’s successors – the Seleucids – lasted a century until the arrival of a new Iranian dynasty from the east, the Parthians.

The Parthian Empire

The Parthian Empire reshaped Iranian history by importing myths and legends from the east and supplanting the Achaemenids in popular memory. This decentralised kingdom – in which the king was first among equals; a king over other kings, if you will – made up for its fractiousness with longevity (it is the longest lived of all Iranian dynasties) and proved a serious foe to the emergent Roman empire, inflicting upon it one of its greatest defeats. This was at the plains of Carrhae in 53 BC, where the Roman commander Crassus (famous for his defeat of Spartacus) was decisively defeated by a smaller Parthian force largely composed of horse archers, losing some two-thirds of his legions and several ‘eagles’ [Romans Standards]. After 500 years, in 224 AD the Parthians were in turn overthrown by another dynasty, this time from the heartlands of Persia itself, the Sasanians.

The Sasanians were undoubtedly the heirs of the Parthians but their empire was more centralised and the ‘king of kings’ was more than a first among equals. Administration was consolidated and Zoroastrianism was promoted as an official and increasingly well-defined creed. In time Sasanian kings, most notably Khusrau II, would come to symbolise all that was good about pre-Islamic Iran and its administration.

Like their predecessors, the Sasanians proved formidable opponents to the Roman and then Byzantine Empires, engaging in a cycle of conflicts which ultimately exhausted both empires and made them vulnerable to hitherto unforeseen challenges.

The Islamic era

In the 7^th century a new power emerged from the Arabian Peninsula – Islam. Defeating the Byzantines, the Muslim Arab armies eventually conquered and absorbed the Sasanian empire into the new Caliphate. The Iranian empire was too large a morsel for the Caliphate to fully digest, with the result that Iranian ideas on the nature and practice of ‘just’ government and culture began to shape the way in which the Caliphate developed.

Islam transformed the Iranian world view, but the political and religious culture of the Islamic world was in turn shaped by the profound legacy of ancient Iran and many of the leading administrative and scientific minds of the classical Islamic age including the polymath Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and the famous vizierial (ministerial) family of the Barmakids, emanated from the Iranian world.

Indeed the emphatic influence of the Iranian world was made clear with the emergence of the Abbasid Caliphate in 749 AD and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to the newly founded city of Baghdad (around 762 AD), not far from the old Sasanian capital. This Iranian turn was exemplified by the development of the ‘new’ Persian language, now empowered with the adoption of the Arabic alphabet to become the lingua franca of the eastern Islamic world, and in time one of the great literary languages of the world.

The Islamic era would witness another profound development in the history of Iran with the entrance of the Turkic peoples from central Asia from the 11th century, but most consequentially with the eruption of the Mongols (nomadic warriors from the steppes of inner Asia) in the 13th century. The Mongol conquest facilitated the migration of the Turkic tribes onto the plateau – forcing a knock-on migration of Iranians onto the Anatolian plateau – fundamentally altering the political economy of the country from one which was largely sedentary to one with a significant nomadic component, especially in the northern parts of the country.

Moreover, Mongol and Turkic words (such as ‘Khan’) feed into the Persian language adding further dimension to the vocabulary of an already rich and diverse language. In economic terms, however, the wave of nomadic invasions beginning with the Mongols and culminating in the devastation wrought by Tamerlane in the 14th century, resulted in widespread economic dislocation. It was to be many years before the economic lifeblood returned in any meaningful sense.

At the same time, taking the long view, the Mongol conquests ensured that ‘Iran’ as a distinct political entity re-emerged after centuries of seclusion within the wider Islamic world. It says something of the cultural confidence and richness of Iranian civilisation that it was able to re-form as a distinct state in its own right and by the 16th century a new dynasty was to emerge which would add further layers to this distinctiveness.

Iran had been absorbed into the Caliphate but had retained its own language and culture such that it began to influence the shape and direction of travel of the Islamic world. Even the Turkic nomads would in turn come to appreciate the cultural powerhouse that Iran and the Persian world represented, adopting and adapting many of its cultural attributes including the Persian language. With the rise of the Safavids in the 16th century this cultural confidence was given political form once again and in order to consolidate their position the Safavids imposed the minority branch of Islam, Shiism, as the new state religion from 1501.

This proved to be something of a double-edged sword. The adoption of Shiism helped distinguish the Iranian state from its Ottoman rival to the West. But it also served to hinder political ties with the Persianate world of the east. Nonetheless, over two centuries the Safavids oversaw a flourishing of Iranian civilisation, most notably under Shah Abbas I (1587–1629), the only king after the Islamic conquest to be known as ‘the Great’. Indeed, just as Iranians ascribed all pre-Islamic achievements to the reign of Khusrau I, so too was Shah Abbas credited with all and any achievements during the Islamic period.

It was during this period that the first systematic contacts were made between Iran and Europe, as European merchants came to establish commercial, and in some cases, political, ties.

Modern challenges

It is to Iran’s misfortune that the period of the most dramatic growth in European power and western civilisation in the 18th century coincided with a period of political turmoil within Iran itself. The traumatic fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722 resulted in decades of warfare as first Iran re-emerged empowered under the leadership of Nader Shah (1736–47), only to once again descend into turmoil following his death.

As a little-known footnote in history, it was Nader Shah’s invasion and defeat of the Mughal Empire in 1739 that paradoxically opened up India to European penetration in the 18^th century. And by the time Iran emerged from its turmoil by the end of the 18^th century it faced a whole new challenge in the Russian and British empires. These were not just political threats but ideological ones with self-confident European powers who were not in awe of Iranian civilisation – on the contrary, they regarded the political economy of the Iranian state to be archaic and dependent on the authority and despotic power of its kings.

European power approached the world with new ideas about the organisation of the state, the rule of law and constitutionalism, all of which were alien to the Iranian world but which gained traction among a group of intellectuals who regarded the salvation of Iran in the adoption of these new and innovative forms of political and economic organisation. Iranians, so used to educating the world, found themselves in the reluctant position of being the student. Throughout the 19th century Iranian intellectuals and activists sought to promote reform but were faced with the objections of reactionary elements within Iran (most notably a monarchy reluctant to concede power) and with the ambivalence of imperial European powers ultimately more anxious to maintain the balance of power.

Eventually, at the turn of the 20^th century, in 1906, the first of Iran’s revolutions – the Constitutional Revolution – established a parliamentary system on the British model, complete with a constitution and separation of powers. It was a seminal moment that altered the political landscape of the country. But its ambitions were high and its promise remained unfulfilled as a new dynasty – the Pahlavis (1925–79) – sought to impose revolution from above.

With the emergence of the Pahlavis in 1925 the revolutionary impetus of 1906 was adopted with some vigour by the new monarch supported initially by many of the intellectuals of the period who were anxious to see the creation of a modern state that would enable their many reforms to education and the judicial system to be realised. Reza Shah’s rule oversaw a transformation of the country but the reforms he oversaw were only partially fulfilled, with the growth in the power of the state not being matched by a growth in civil society and civic rights.

Overthrown following an Allied occupation (1941–46) in the turmoil of the Second World War, he was succeeded by his young son Mohammad Reza Shah (1941–79) who for the first period of his reign had to contend with growing factionalism as well as the continued interference of foreign powers. The crisis over the continued Soviet occupation of Azerbaijan was resolved in 1946, but a more serious crisis over Iran’s oil industry resulted in an Anglo-American orchestrated coup to overthrow the nationalist prime minister Dr Mohammad Mosaddeq who had encouraged the Shah to reign rather than rule. As with the revolution of 1906, the coup of 1953 was to cast a long shadow over Iranian politics and the Shah struggled to emerge from it.

Royal autocracy and the ‘Islamic’ revolution

In the 1960s the Shah felt strong enough to launch a ‘White’ revolution of his own, further transforming the socio-economic landscape of the country but failing to match these dramatic changes with a measure of political reform. Indeed, far from democratising, the 1970s witnessed a retrenchment of royal autocracy. Political stagnation with social and economic change proved to be a combustible combination to which was added a religious revival centred on the figure of Ayatollah Khomeini. By 1978 the Shah, faced with opposition from nationalists, the left and the religious groups, found himself no longer master of his political domain, increasingly at a loss as to how to react to the groundswell of discontent.

He went into exile in January 1979. Two weeks later Ayatollah Khomeini returned to the adulation of the crowds (pictured above) and in short order the monarchy was replaced by an Islamic Republic. But this new ‘Islamic’ revolution proved no more successful in reconciling Iran’s traditions with the challenges of modernity. The seizure of the US Embassy in November 1979 and the start of a protracted war with Iraq in 1980, which lasted to 1988, both scarred and defined the emergent Islamic Republic. Rampant factionalism was not expunged by the violent suppression of the Left, and the Islamic Republic has been characterised by fierce debates over the nature and character of the state dividing between those who favour the republican institutions and those who seek the establishment of an Islamic government.

The dominance of the ‘Islamists’ and the growing autocracy of the ‘supreme leader’ indicate that the problems of 1906 remain unresolved and that 1979 simply witnessed the ‘crown’ being replaced by the ‘turban’.

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Kashmir – the “paradise on Earth” of Bernier, has the proud privilege of having a history in Sanskrit (Rajatarangini) giving a lucid account of events from 3000 B.C. to 1149 A.D., including the list of kings, queens, ministers, and their military expeditions to neighboring states.

Kashmiris distinguished themselves in the production of an uninterrupted series of written records of its history, reaching back beyond the medieval times Kalhana in the 12^th century A.D. testifies to the existence of at least eleven earlier compositions on the history of Kashmir which he consulted to write his immortal and outstanding book – Rajatarangini.

The early accounts of Kashmir are referred to by various sources, both indigenous as well as foreign. The only certain reference to Kashmir that classical literature has preserved is found in Ptolemy’s Geography, wherein he referred to the region as “Kaspeiria”. Herodotos, the “Father of History” has referred to Kashmir as “Kaspatyros”. Wilson was the first who distinctly attempted to connect the name of Kashpatros with Kashmir. According to Wilson, the name Kashmir was derived from Kasyappura, a name which he supposed to have been given to the country owing to its colonization by the Raja Kashyapa.

Earlier Buddhist pilgrims from China on their way to the sacred locations of the Indian plains visited Kashmir and chose it as a resting place. According to M.A. Stein, the first clear reference to Kashmir is contained in a record dating from 541 A.D. given by an Indian envoy who reached China during the early part of the reign of the Tang Dynasty. Hiuen Tsang was the first Chinese traveler who visited Kashmir and resided here as an honored guest for two years. The records of this great Chinese pilgrim contain the fullest and most accurate description of Kashmir.

The next Chinese notice of Kashmir, with considerable historical interest, is contained in the Annals of the “Tang Dynasty”. Another Chinese pilgrim Ou-King also visited Kashmir. He reached Kashmir in the year 759 A.D. from Gandhara, by the same route as followed by Hieun Tsang. He stayed for 4 years to visit holy sites and study Sanskrit.

Muhammad bin Al-Qasim was the first Muslim (Arabian) commander who established the Arab hegemony in Sindh, Punjab, and Multan in India during 711-712 A.D. through Indus Valley, Muslim forces reached close enough to the confines of Kashmir. The Arabic literature provides enough, accurate and valuable information about ancient Kashmir. The credit goes to Alberuni – a great Muslim scholar who during his long stay at Ghazna and Punjab (1017 – 30 A.D.) had utilized every opportunity to collect information on Kashmir.

Kalhana’s immortal work Rajatarangini, composed in the year 1148 – 49 A.D. is our oldest record of the various kings and their dynasties. Kalhana, during his research, has consulted some of the compositions on the history of Kashmir i.e.; Kshemendra’s Nrapavali which chronicles Nilmatpurana. According to Kalhana, Padmamihira had obtained the information about earlier kings from Helaraja who had composed a “list of kings” (Parthivavali) Kalhana’s Rajatarangini is the only work in Indian literature that may be regarded as a historical text.

King Zain-ul-Abidin, of Kashmir, has the credit of translating Kalhana’s Rajatarangini’ into Persian during the 15^th century. Abu Fazl, the great writer during the Mughal period incorporated long abstracts of Rajatarangini in his famous book Ain-i-Akbari, under the orders of the Mughal king – Akbar. Bernier (1665 A.D.) an authority on Kashmir studies makes a mention of it in his lectures. Motorcraft during his visit to Kashmir in 1823 A.D., obtained a copy of Rajatarangini and got it translated into French by M. Troyer., Dr. Buhler and Dr. Stein were the pioneers in providing the monumental translation of the chronicles published in 1900. R.S. Pandit in 1935 A.D. translated Rajatarangini into English, highlighting its poetic and literary standards.

Parihaspura is believed to be the birthplace of Kalhana, who was a Brahmin by descent and a Saiva by faith. Kalhana’s father, Compaka, was a minister in King Harsa’s reign (1089-1101 A.D.) who remained loyal to the king until his last. Kalhana as a historian has consulted every available source, besides studying coins and inspecting old monumental structures. He is a master of accurate topography of ancient Kashmir. Sanskrit was the official and sole literary language of Kashmir, not only in Kalhana’s own time but also in those earlier periods from which the records used by him may have dated. Kalhana’s work was continued by Jonaraja, who brought the chronicle down to the reign of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (1420-70 A.D.). The greater part of his chronicle deals with the reign of Hindu rulers from Jayasimha to Queen Kota. His pupil Srivara, recorded historical events dating from 1459 to 1486 A.D., The 4^th chronicle titled Rajavalipataka by Prajyabhatta was completed by his pupil Shuka some years after the annexation of Kashmir by Akbar (1586 A.D.).

After the advent of Muslim rule in Kashmir, Sanskrit continued to be the official language.  With the increasing patronage of the Persian language and literature by the Muslim rulers, there are rich Persian records of the history of Kashmir by eminent Kashmiri scholars. Mulla Ahmad, Kashmiri, translated Kalhana’s Rajatarangini into Persian under the orders of King Zain-ul-Abidin. Malik Haider Chadura wrote a history of Kashmir from the earliest times to his times in Persian during 1617 A.D. during the reign of Jehangir. Haider Malik was both a historian and an architect. He designed the architectural structures of Jamia Masjid Srinagar after it was consumed by fire. The Khanqah of Mir Sham-ud-Din Iraqi was also designed by him. Another Kashmiri scholar of the Persian language and poet Narayan Koul Aijaz, in his book “Twarikh-i-Kashmir” (1710 A.D.) assesses the reigns of the Sultans and early Mughals. Khawaja Mohammad Azam Kaul of Didamar (Srinagar) wrote a historical account of Kashmir titled “Waquat-i-Kashmir” in 1735-46 A.D. Khawaja history of Kashmir. During Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s rule Pandit Birbal Kachru, wrote “History of Kashmir” in 1836 A.D. Moulvi Ghulam Hassan’s “Twarikh-i-Kashmir”, in three volumes deals with Geography, Political History, and the Arts and Crafts of Kashmir. He was an authority on Kashmir and its past. It was Moulvi Hassan of Bandipora who was the main source of providing historical and statistical information to Sir. W. Lawrence, the settlement commissioner of Kashmir.

During the middle of the 19^th century, when Urdu and English were the court languages in the state, there were valuable contributions to the history of Kashmir by Kashmiri scholars, i.e… Pandit Anand Koul (Geography of Jammu and Kashmir in 1910 A.D.); and Ghulam Mohi-ud-Din Sofi (Kashir in 1949) deserve mention. Mohammad Din Fauq, a Kashmiri who settled in Lahore, wrote about the History, Geography, folklore, and origin of communities in Kashmir. He wrote in the Urdu language.

A detailed account of Kashmir, its people, agriculture, religion, architecture, arts and crafts is recorded by Mirza Haider Dughlat, a cousin of Mughal king Babar, in his Tarikh-e-Rashidi. He invaded Kashmir twice, once from Kashgar in 1533 A.D. and again from Lahore in 1540 A.D. when he ruled the valley for ten years in the name of puppet king Nazuk Shah.

The Tabaqat-i-Akbari by Nizam-ud-Din refers to the history of Kashmir from the earliest times to the conquest of the valley by Akbar, in one of its sections. “Tarikh-i-Farishta” by Mohammad Qasim Farishta contains a chapter on Kashmir. Very useful information about Akbar’s relations with Chak rulers of Kashmir is contained in A.Q. Badayunis’ “Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh”. Abu Fazal’s “Akbar Nama” and “Ain-i-Akbari” and Jehangiri’s “Tuzk” provide rich information about the land and people of Kashmir.

Father Gerome Xavier and Benoist de Gois were the first Europeans to visit Kashmir, accompanying Akbar. They were followed by famous scholars i.e., Francis Bernier (1665 A.D.) who accompanied Aurangzeb; George Forester, Vigne (1835 A.D.); Moorcraft; Fredrick Drew; Lawrence and Lord Cunningham whose works form the bedrock of the study of Kashmir and its people.

The archaeological studies of the early sites in Kashmir supplement the old chronicles and texts. Sir W. Lawrence in his memorable work “The Valley of Kashmir” says, “Kashmir is the holy land of the Hindus and I Have rarely been in any village which cannot show old Kashmir temples, huge stone seats of Mahadeo, Phallic emblems, innumerable carved images heaped in grotesque confusion by some clear spring have met me at every turn. I have seen curious mosques built in a style, unlike the presence of wooden beams with stones between. Chance excavations, for irrigation and other works, reveal curious sculptures and interesting relics of ancient history.

It was Goerge Buhler’s remarkable visit to Kashmir in 1875 A.D., which resulted in the discovery of valuable material for a systematic study of the history of Kashmir. Dr. M.A. Stein followed the methodology of his teacher, Goerge Buhler, and thanks to his sustained labors for presenting a comprehensive knowledge of the antiquities of the valley. His memoir on the ancient geography of Kashmir is a monumental work that shows the close link that most of these ruins form in the chain of data for a study of the history of this ancient land and its people.

The study of Kashmir coins by some scholars has resulted in useful data being collected on the chronology of the Sultans and other Muslim kings from the 14^th to 17^th centuries. Such studies by C.J. Rogers, Sir Aurel Stein, and R. B. Whitehead have made considerable contributions to the ancient history of Kashmir through a study of old coins.

The Kashmiri people are perhaps the most important source of Kashmir history. Kashmiri art, culture, traditions, customs, manners, folklore, language, dress food, and other related habits, which they held since ancient times present an open book of history. The Kashmiris are a living race with a magnificent past, full of both joy and sorrow, hope and fear, who are changing along with the times, leaving their cowardice and bonds of slavery to shape and design their future.

According to Dr. Stein, Kashmir can claim to have the distinction of being the only region of India that possesses an uninterrupted series of written records of its history, going back beyond the period of Muslim rule and deserving the name of real chronicles.

Kashmir History – After Independence

After a long period of struggle for independent states, the Indians were declared independent, by the British, who before leaving the land, partitioned it into two states, i.e., India and Pakistan, on the midnight of 14^th August 1947 A.D.

With the departure of Maharaja Hari Singh, the last Dogra King on the 26^th of January 1947 A.D. from Kashmir to Jammu the state was in a chaotic situation, and there was an acute shortage of all essential commodities of life in the valley especially, salt, sugar, cloth, kerosene, and petrol, etc.

The emergency administration, with Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah’s National Conference as the torchbearer, made every effort to normalize the situation and on the request of Sheikh, the central government prevailed upon the Maharaja to appoint Mohan Chand Mahajan as Prime Minister on the 5^th of March 1948 A.D., the emergency administration was converted into a regular council of ministers with Sheikh Abdullah as Prime Minister.

The “New Kashmir” plan, as envisaged and Sheikh’s popular government implemented social and agrarian reforms. In April 1949 A.D., a land reforms committee was appointed to prepare a plan for the abolition of the zamindari system and transfer of land to the tiller. The Chakdari system came to an end.

To change the Educational system, the mother tongue was adopted as the medium of instruction in primary classes. Schools and colleges were set up throughout the J&K State. The J&K University was established on 1^st Nov. 1948 A.D., with its campus at Hazratbal, Srinagar.

In May 1951, the Yuvaraj, Dr. Karan Singh in the capacity of the Regent, issued a proclamation convoking a constituent Assembly based on free adult franchise. Elections to the assembly were held and it met in October 1951 A.D. for the first time. All the 75 seats of the assembly were won by the National Conference. The constituent assembly in its meeting decided that the titular head i.e., Maharaja be called Sadar-e-Riyasat to be elected by the Legislative Assembly for a term of five years.

The position of the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the Indian Union was settled in an agreement popularly known as the “Delhi Agreement” of 1952 A.D., in which India agreed to accord a special statute and position to J&K State in the constitution, whereby complete internal autonomy was assured to the state.

Due to the disturbing political and economic situation in the state during the early months of 1953 A.D., there was dissension in the cabinet. On the 8^th of August 1953 A.D., the Sadar-e-Riyasat with the support of the central government dismissed Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah as Prime Minister, and on the 9^th of August 1953 A.D., invited Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, (the trusted Lieutenant of Sheikh as well as center) to form a new government. Sheikh was arrested on the 9^th of August 1953 A.D. and kept in detention.

Bakshi announced various programs to ameliorate the economic crisis. The Levee was abolished forthwith; cottage industries were developed. The Educational freedom from school to university level was abolished. Efforts were made to develop the regional languages i.e. Kashmir, Dogri, and Ladakhi. The permit system for the tourists was abolished.

It was during Bakshi’s regime that the constituent Assembly confirmed the state’s accession to India on 6^th February 1954 A.D.

The drafting committee presented the draft of the new constitution to the Assembly on 10t Oct 1956 A.D., which was unanimously adopted on 17 November 1956 A.D., and came into effect from 26 January 1957 A.D. in 1959 A.D., The state Assembly unanimously decided to seek amendment of the state’s constitution to provide for the extension of the jurisdiction of the election commission of India and the supreme court over the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Elections to the new legislative assembly were held in March 1957 A.D., and the national conference headed by Bakshi won 68; Praja Parishad 05, Harijan Mandal 1, and independent 1 out of 75 seats. The second election was held in 1962 A.D., under the control of the Election Commission of India. Bakshi was forced to resign under the “Kamraj Plan” in August 1963 A.D. He was succeeded by Khawja Shamus-ud-deen, a compromise candidate as prime minister.

It was on December 27, 1963, A.D. that the Holy Relic of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) at Hazratbal Shrine was stolen, which caused widespread anger and anguish among the Kashmiris. This event was responsible for the loss of the Sham-ud-Deen ministry. With the help of the central government, the national conference legislatures elected Ghulam Mohammad Sadiq as their leader in February 1964 A.D. With every change in government and by the planting of blue-eyed boys by the Delhi Government, the state in one way or the other, came nearer to the center. It was during Sadiq’s regime, that the head of state was to be designated as “Governor” and the Prime Minister as “Chief Minister”, on the pattern of the Indian Constitution.

Mr. Sadiq decided to withdraw all the charges of conspiracy against Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah and others, who were in detention from August 1953 A.D. to April 1964 A.D., with a brief spell of freedom from January to April 1958 A.D. after his release in April 1964 A.D., he was received very warmly by the people and was invited by Pandit Nehru to visit Delhi, after Delhi, he visited Pakistan. He cut short his tour due to the death of Pandit Nehru on 27^th May 1964 A.D.

In August 1965 A.D., there was a 22-day Indo-Pak war. During the Arab – the Israel war in 1967 A.D., there were widespread riots in Srinagar. In September 1967 A.D., Kashmiri Pandits led a massive agitation against the marriage of a Pandit girl, named Prameshwari to a Muslim boy.

During G.M. Sadiq’s regime, many NC members like Mohammad Shafi Qureshi, and Syed Mir Qasim were active in establishing the Indian National Congress Party in the state. With the demise of Mr. Sadiq on December 12, 1971 A.D., Syed Mir Qasim, the congress stalwart in the state was called upon to assume office as Chief Minister.

In December 1971 A.D., there were 14 days of war between India and Pakistan, which led to the creation of “Bangladesh”, as a sovereign state.

The Shimla Agreement between Mrs. Indira Gandhi and Mr. Z.A. Bhuttoo was signed on July 3, 1972, A.D., in which 90,000 soldiers of Pakistan captured by the Indian Army and Mukti Bhani of Bangladesh, were allowed to return to Pakistan. The ceasefire line in Kashmir was renamed as “Line of Actual Control”.

The fourth elections to the State Legislative Assembly were held in March 1972 A.D., which returned the INC to power. All political parties took part in these elections for the 74 seats; Congress won 57, the Jamat-i-Islami 05, the Jana Sangh 03, and Independent 09.

It was during Mir Qasim’s rule, that Sheikh Abdullah and his trusted Lieutenant Mirza Afzal Afzal Beigh, who were in prison, were released. Over time, there were exchanges of views for the restoration of power to Sheikh Abdullah, between Mirza Afzal Beigh and G. Parthasarathy, (Mrs. Gandhi’s Ambassador). An accord called “Indira – Abdullah Accord” was negotiated in 1975 A.D., by which Sheikh Abdullah was offered the Chief Ministership of the state and Syed Qasim was asked to step down by the high command in Delhi. In his second period as the ruler of the state, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah was accused of having sold his conscience for the lure of power through the masses as the majority of Kashmiris considered secession from India the only panacea for their ills. The tall and towering personality of Sheikh Abdullah who dominated the political scene of Kashmir for about half a century came to an end after his demise in 1982 A.D. After his death his son Dr. Farooq Abdullah was administered the oath of office as Chief Minister of Kashmir.

Dr. Farooq’s rule of 02 years came to an end due to a split in the National Conference and he was replaced by his brother-in-law Ghulam Mohammad Shah at the behest of Govt. of India. But he hailed to restore the law and order situation. There was hardly a day when curfew was not imposed in one part of the other in the valley Shah was therefore referred to as curfew chief minister. He was dismissed in March 1986 A.D. and the governor’s rule was imposed throughout the state. After six months Dr. Farooq with the blessings of Rajiv Gandhi was reinstalled as chief minister on November 7, 1986 A.D., Dr. Farooq’s great achievement on the political front was the reunion of two factions, led by Dr. Farooq and Mirwaiz Moulvi Farooq after 40 long years.

During Dr. Farooq’s second stint as Chief Minister, there was a complete breakdown of the state administration. The entire socio-economic setup crumbled and the political scenario had assumed a ferocious look. The entire system was dominated by militancy – the propounders of NIzam-e-Mustafa and Azadi for Kashmiris.

During 1988 and 1989 A.D., the conditions were totally out of control. There was a writ of militants in every domain of social, political, and economic affairs. There were frequent bandhs, processions, and marching to the UN observer’s office in Srinagar. The people were in a do-or-die situation to achieve freedom.

Governor Jagmohan was replaced by K.V. Krishna Rao, as the new incumbent on 11^th July 1989. When the conditions were just out of control, the central government replaced Governor K.V. Krishan Rao and in his place, Jagmohan was installed as the new governor on January 17, 1990 A.D. The appointment of the new Governor irked Dr. Farooq who resigned as Chief Minister, during Jagmohan’s term of office the Kashmiri Pandits were encouraged by the majority of the Muslim population to be annihilated. Silent protestors and processions were gunned down and the security forces left no stone unturned to harass, harm, and kill the innocent Kashmiris, who fought for their rights.

Mirwaiz Farooq was killed by unidentified gunmen and his funeral procession was fired, in which 15 mourners lost their lives and 60 were injured during Jagmohan’s rule.

Jagmohan after his second term was replaced by a retired intelligence officer, namely Girish Saxena, on 20^th May 1990 A.D. As there was no improvement in the chaotic conditions during Saxena’s Governorship, he was replaced by K.V. Krishna Rao.

Elections to the Legislative Assembly were held in the months of September-October 1996 A.D., under the barrel gun and the participation of the electorate in these elections was negligible which gave a mandate to Dr. Farooq’s national conference who assumed power as chief minister on October 09, 1996 A.D. Dr. Farooq again ruled Kashmir from 1996 to 2002 A.D. for six years. In the elections, again held under tight security in October 2002, none of the political parties gained a majority to form the government. So, a coalition government between Congress and the People’s Democratic Party was formed with Mufti Mohammad Syed as Chief Minister for a term of the first three years as per the agreement. After the expiry of his term of office, he was replaced by Mr. Ghulam Nabi Azad, a Congress candidate from Jammu (Doda district) region, who assumed office on November 2, 2005 A.D. The coalition government formed by Congress and PDP came to an end when differences between the two parties surfaced on certain issues, resulting in fresh elections during 2008 A.D. The coalition government had a tough time dealing with the public outcry on “Azadi” and “Amarnath” issues. After the election in 2008 A.D., a coalition government was formed between the National Conference and the Congress party, with young Omar Abdullah, as the Chief Minister and the President of the National Conference Dr. Farooq Abdullah was inducted into the Union Cabinet as Minister of Renewable Energy.

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The Panama Canal is one of the most significant engineering feats in history, providing a critical maritime shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Spanning 50 miles (80 kilometers) across the Isthmus of Panama, the canal greatly reduces the travel distance for ships, allowing them to avoid the long and perilous journey around the southern tip of South America via Cape Horn. Its history is marked by political intrigue, monumental construction challenges, and immense international impact.

Early Interest and Exploration
The idea of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama dates back centuries. Early explorers recognized the strategic and economic advantages of creating a shortcut between the Atlantic and Pacific.

Spanish Exploration (16th Century): As early as 1513, after Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the isthmus and became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the New World, Spanish explorers envisioned the construction of a canal. However, the technological limitations and the immense geographic challenges made this dream impossible at the time.

18th and 19th Centuries: Various powers, including Spain and France, considered canal routes across Central America, including Panama and Nicaragua. Panama, with its narrow landmass, was always seen as a potential site. By the 19th century, European and American governments were actively discussing the possibilities.

The French Attempt (1881–1894)
The first serious attempt to construct the Panama Canal was undertaken by France, led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the famous engineer who had successfully overseen the construction of the Suez Canal (1869). However, the project proved far more difficult than expected.

Lesseps’ Leadership: After his triumph with the Suez Canal, de Lesseps assumed the Panama Canal would be similarly straightforward. In 1881, the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique began construction under his direction. He initially planned for a sea-level canal, similar to the Suez, but Panama’s geography and tropical environment posed far greater challenges.

Challenges and Failures: The French effort was plagued by numerous obstacles:
The tropical rain forest environment, heavy rains, and landslides made excavation difficult.
The workers, many from the Caribbean and Europe, suffered from diseases like malaria and yellow fever. These diseases killed tens of thousands of workers.
The project’s funding ran out due to escalating costs, mismanagement, and corruption (in what became known as the Panama Canal Scandal).

Collapse of the French Effort: By 1889, the French company was bankrupt, and construction was halted. A new company, Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama, made some progress, but ultimately, the French effort was abandoned by 1894, with only about 40% of the project completed.

The American Involvement (1904–1914)
The United States saw great strategic and economic value in a canal across Panama and stepped in after the French failure.

U.S. Interest in the Canal: By the late 19th century, the U.S. was emerging as a global power, and an isthmian canal was seen as critical to its naval and commercial interests. A canal would drastically reduce travel time for U.S. warships and merchant vessels between the east and west coasts. Initially, the U.S. considered a route through Nicaragua but ultimately decided on Panama.

Panama’s Independence: At the time, Panama was part of Colombia, and negotiations between the U.S. and Colombia to acquire rights for canal construction broke down. In 1903, with American encouragement, Panamanian nationalists declared independence from Colombia. The U.S. quickly recognized Panama’s independence and signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which gave the U.S. control over the Canal Zone, a 10-mile-wide strip of land across Panama, in exchange for financial compensation and guarantees of Panama’s sovereignty.

Construction by the U.S.: In 1904, the United States took over the French infrastructure and began construction under the leadership of President Theodore Roosevelt.

Chief Engineer John F. Stevens focused first on improving the living and working conditions for the labor force. This included constructing hospitals, housing, and proper sanitation systems.
The appointment of Dr. William Gorgas, who had studied tropical diseases, was crucial in eradicating yellow fever and controlling malaria in the Canal Zone, vastly improving worker health and safety.
Technical Challenges: One of the most difficult engineering challenges was cutting through the Culebra Cut, a section of the Continental Divide. Landslides frequently hampered progress, but steady work and new excavation techniques allowed the project to proceed.

Locks System: Unlike the original French vision of a sea-level canal, the U.S. designed the canal with a system of locks that would raise ships 85 feet above sea level to cross the isthmus and then lower them back to sea level on the other side. The Gatun Dam created an artificial lake (Gatun Lake), which became a key part of the canal system.

Completion: After a decade of work and enormous financial and human investment, the canal was completed. On August 15, 1914, the SS Ancon became the first official ship to transit the Panama Canal. The U.S. spent around $375 million on the project, including the cost of the original French effort, making it one of the most expensive construction projects of its time.

Strategic and Economic Importance
The Panama Canal had a profound impact on global shipping and geopolitics:

Military and Strategic Use: For the U.S., the canal was a critical asset, especially for its Navy, as it allowed for rapid deployment of military forces between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It became an essential part of U.S. defense strategy, particularly during World War I, World War II, and the Cold War.

Global Trade: The canal drastically reduced the time and cost of shipping goods. A voyage from New York to San Francisco, for example, was shortened by about 8,000 miles, making it much more efficient and economically viable.

Panama Canal under U.S. Control
From its opening in 1914 until the late 20th century, the Panama Canal was operated by the United States. While the canal brought significant economic benefits, U.S. control over the Canal Zone became a source of tension between the U.S. and Panama.

Tensions with Panama: Panamanians resented the presence of U.S. troops and the economic and political control that the U.S. exerted over the Canal Zone. This tension occasionally erupted into protests and violence, particularly in the 1960s, when Panamanian students and citizens demonstrated for sovereignty over the canal.

The Panama Canal Treaties and Transfer (1977–1999)
In 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos signed the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, which provided for the gradual transfer of the canal from U.S. control to Panama. Under these agreements:

Panama was to gain full control of the canal on December 31, 1999.
The canal was to remain neutral and open to vessels of all nations, even in times of war.
On December 31, 1999, the Panama Canal was officially handed over to Panama, ending nearly a century of U.S. control. Since then, the canal has been managed by the Panama Canal Authority, a Panamanian government agency.

Modern Developments and Expansion
Expansion Project: To accommodate modern shipping demands, particularly the rise of super-sized cargo ships, Panama began work on a major expansion project in the 21st century. Known as the Panama Canal Expansion (Third Set of Locks), it was completed in 2016.

This project added a new set of locks and widened the existing channels, allowing for the transit of much larger ships, known as New Panamax vessels, which are nearly double the size of the ships that the original canal could accommodate.
Economic and Global Importance: The canal continues to play a critical role in global shipping and trade, facilitating the passage of thousands of vessels each year. It remains a vital artery for world commerce, particularly between Asia and the Americas.

Environmental and Geopolitical Concerns
The Panama Canal has had environmental impacts, including deforestation, water management issues, and ecological disruption. Additionally, climate change and fluctuating rainfall patterns pose challenges for maintaining water levels in Gatun Lake, which is critical for the canal’s operation.

Geopolitically, the canal remains a strategically important asset. Its neutrality and openness are crucial for global trade, and any disruption would have significant economic and political ramifications.

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